Atomic force microscopy studies of conditioner thickness distribution and binding interactions on the hair surface

The way in which common hair care products, such as conditioner, deposit onto and change hair properties is of interest in beauty care science, as these properties are closely tied to product performance. The binding interaction between conditioner and the hair surface is one of the important factors in determining the conditioner thickness distribution and consequently the proper functions of conditioner. In this study, atomic force microscopy was used to obtain the local conditioner thickness distribution, adhesive forces and effective Young's modulus mapping of various hair surfaces. The conditioner thickness was extracted by measuring the forces on the atomic force microscopy tip as it approached, contacted and pushed through the conditioner layer. The effective Young's moduli of various hair surfaces were calculated from the force distance curves using Hertz analysis. The intrinsic binding interactions between different silicones and the hair surface on the microscopic scale, as well as their effect on the effective Young's modulus of the hair, are also discussed. It was found that the effective Young's modulus of the hair is strongly affected by the binding of conditioner molecules on the hair surface.     

Stereoscopic display of atomic force microscope images using anaglyph techniques

This paper describes the use of a standard stereo-pair image display method for presenting the three-dimensional relief information found in atomic force microscope (AFM) images. The method makes use of commercially available image processing software packages. The techniques are illustrated on AFM images of the cuticle structure of a human hair fibre.     

Nanotribological characterization of digital micromirror devices using an atomic force microscope

Texas Instruments’ digital micromirror device (DMD) comprises an array of fast digital micromirrors, monolithically integrated onto and controlled by an underlying silicon memory chip. The DMD is one of the few success stories in the emerging field of MEMS. In this study, an atomic force microscope (AFM) has been used to characterize the nanotribological properties of the elements of the DMD. An AFM methodology was developed to identify and remove micromirrors of interest. The surface roughness, adhesion, friction, and stiffness properties of the DMD elements were studied. The influence of relative humidity and temperature on the behavior of the DMD element surfaces was also investigated. Potential mechanisms for wear and stiction are discussed in light of the findings.     

Investigation of penetration force of living cell using an atomic force microscope

Recently, the manipulation of a single cell has been receiving much attention in transgenesis, in-vitro fertilization, individual cell based diagnosis, and pharmaceutical applications. As these techniques require precise injection and manipulation of cells, issues related to penetration force arise. In this work the penetration force of living cell was studied using an atomic force microscope (AFM). L929, HeLa, 4T1, and TA3 HA II cells were used for the experiments. The results showed that the penetration force was in the range of 2∼22 nN. It was also found that location of cell penetration and stiffness of the AFM cantilever affected the penetration force significantly. Furthermore, double penetration events could be detected, due to the multi-membrane layers of the cell. The findings of this work are expected to aid in the development of precision micro-medical instruments for cell manipulation and treatment. This paper was presented at the 9^th Asian International Conference on Fluid Machinery (AICFM9), Jeju, Korea, October 16–19, 2007.recommended for publication in revised form by Associate Editor Keum-Sik Hong Eun-Young Kwon received her B.S. and M.S degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Yonsei University, Korea, in 2005 and 2007, respectively. Ms. Kwon is currently an Engineer at Digital Printing Division of Samsung Electronics. Her research interests include biotribology, tribology, and electrophotography. Young-Tae Kim received his B.S. in Automotive Engineering from Seoul National University of Technology, Korea, in 2003. He then received his M.S. degree from Yonsei University in Seoul, Korea in 2005. Mr. Kim is currently a Ph. D. candidate at the Graduate School of Mechanical Engineering at Yonsei University in Seoul, Korea. His research interests include biotribology, tribology, and biomechanics. Dae-Eun Kim received his B.S. in Mechanical Engineering from Tufts University, USA, in 1984. He then received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from M.I.T. in 1986 and 1991, respectively. Dr. Kim is currently a Professor at the School of Mechanical Engi-neering at Yonsei University in Seoul, Korea. His research interests include tribology, functional surfaces, and micromachining.     

Immobilization method of yeast cells for intermittent contact mode imaging using the atomic force microscope

The atomic force microscope (AFM) is widely used for studying the surface morphology and growth of live cells. There are relatively fewer reports on the AFM imaging of yeast cells [1] (Kasas and Ikai, 1995), [2] (Gad and Ikai, 1995). Yeasts have thick and mechanically strong cell walls and are therefore difficult to attach to a solid substrate. In this report, a new immobilization technique for the height mode imaging of living yeast cells in solid media using AFM is presented. The proposed technique allows the cell surface to be almost completely exposed to the environment and studied using AFM. Apart from the new immobilization protocol, for the first time, height mode imaging of live yeast cell surface in intermittent contact mode is presented in this report. Stable and reproducible imaging over a 10-h time span is observed. A significant improvement in operational stability will facilitate the investigation of growth patterns and surface patterns of yeast cells.     

Manipulation, dissection, and lithography using modified tapping mode atomic force microscope

A modified tapping mode of the atomic force microscope (AFM) was introduced for manipulation, dissection, and lithography. By sufficiently decreasing the amplitude of AFM tip in the normal tapping mode and adjusting the setpoint, the tip-sample interaction can be efficiently controlled. This modified tapping mode has some characteristics of the AFM contact mode and can be used to manipulate nanoparticles, dissect biomolecules, and make lithographs on various surfaces. This method did not need any additional equipment and it can be applied to any AFM system.     

Imaging the native structure of the chaperone protein GroEL without fixation using atomic force microscopy

Most sample preparation methods for scanning probe or electron microscopy require that biomolecules, such as proteins, be fixed. Fixation destroys the molecular functionality and can possibly affect the true molecular structure. Here we report sample preparation conditions that allow the imaging of an unfixed protein, GroEL, under in-vivo conditions, by atomic force microscopy. Under these conditions, the protein should maintain its native structure and biological activity. The typical toroidal shape with pore of the GroEL complex was easily visible in the images. Images of a single complex show dimensions that agree well with crystallographic data. Under in-vivo conditions, it should be possible to study the biological activity and function of proteins.     

The comparison between force volume and peakforce quantitative nanomechanical mode of atomic force microscope in detecting cell's mechanical properties

Atomic force microscope (AFM) has been widely used in the biological field owing to its high sensitivity (subnanonewton), high spatial resolution (nanometer), and adaptability to physiological environments. Nowadays, force volume (FV) and peakforce quantitative nanomechanical (QNM) are two distinct modes of AFM used in biomechanical research. However, numerous studies have revealed an extremely confusing phenomenon that FV mode has a significant difference with QNM in determining the mechanical properties of the same samples. In this article, for the case of human benign prostatic hyperplasia cells (BPH) and two cancerous prostate cells with different grades of malignancy (PC3 and DU145), the differences were compared between FV and QNM modes in detecting mechanical properties. The results show measured Young's modulus of the same cells in FV mode was much lower than that obtained by QNM mode. Combining experimental results with working principles of two modes, it is indicated that surface adhesion is highly suspected to be a critical factor resulting in the measurement difference between two modes. To further confirm this conjecture, various weight ratios of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) were assessed by two modes, respectively. The results show that the difference of Young's modulus measured by two modes increases with the surface adhesion of PDMS, confirming that adhesion is one of the significant elements that lead to the measurement difference between FV and QNM modes.     

Study of the nanoscopic deformation of an annealed nafion film by using atomic force microscopy and a patterned substrate

We demonstrated the repetitive imaging of the same area of a nafion film before and after annealing by using atomic force microscopy (AFM). In order to find the exact same area of the same sample after changing the cantilever and reattaching the sample, a micropatterned substrate was developed. A micropattern with a 250–500 μm pitch was prepared on the backside of a transparent glass substrate. This pattern includes various signs such as colored letters and numbers at the center of each lattice of the pattern. The nanostructures fabricated by AFM nanolithography on a nafion film using this new method were successfully characterized before and after annealing (over 100 °C). The AFM images clearly showed that the nanostructures on a nafion film were dramatically changed by annealing. The data indicated an evidence to understand why the nafion fuel cell does not work well at high temperatures. Our method is probably effective for the study of nanoscopic dynamics in various surface structures.     

Characterization of polymer thin films by phase-sensitive acoustic microscopy and atomic force microscopy: a comparative review

The potential of phase-sensitive acoustic microscopy (PSAM) for characterizing polymer thin films is reviewed in comparison to atomic force microscopy (AFM). This comparison is based on results from three-dimensional vector contrast imaging and multimodal imaging using PSAM and AFM, respectively. The similarities and differences between the information that can be derived from the AFM topography and phase images, and the PSAM phase and amplitude micrographs are examined. In particular, the significance of the PSAM phase information for qualitative and quantitative characterization of the polymer films is examined for systems that generate surface waves, and those that do not. The relative merits, limitations and outlook of both techniques, individually, and as a complementary pair, are discussed.     

Sensitivity and resonant frequency of an AFM with sidewall and top-surface probes for both flexural and torsional modes

The resonant frequencies and flexural sensitivities of an atomic force microscope (AFM) with assembled cantilever probe (ACP) are studied. This ACP comprises a horizontal cantilever, a vertical extension and two tips located at the free ends of the cantilever and the extension, which makes the AFM capable of simultaneous topography at top surface and sidewalls of microstructures especially microgears, which consequently leads to a time-saving swift scanning process. In this work, the effects of the sample surface contact stiffness and the geometrical parameters such as the ratio of the vertical extension length to the horizontal cantilever length and the distance of the vertical extension from clamped end of the horizontal cantilever on both flexural and torsional resonant frequencies and sensitivities are assessed. These geometrical effects are illustrated in some figures. The results show that the low-order vibration modes are more sensitive for low values of the contact stiffness, but the situation is reversed for high values.