Sustainable rural bioenergy production for developing countries

Bioenergy is a renewable energy source made from biomass, which are organic materials such as plants and animals. Until enough biomass resources to ensure energy demand in the world is available, the bioenergy obtained from biomass, there may be used for heat, electrical and transport. Main biomass thermo-chemical conversion technologies are pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction. Biomass can be burned to produce heat and electricity, changed to gas-like fuels such as methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide, or changed to a liquid fuel. Modern biomass can be used for the generation of electricity and heat using modern conversion technologies. Technological advances have made modern biomass cogeneration plants cleaner, more efficient, and, under certain conditions, cost-effective as compared to public utility grids and fossil-fuel boilers or generators. Biomass can be converted to liquid biofuels: bioethanol and biodiesel. Two biofuels are becoming more and more attractive and competitive as complementary to or substitutions for petroleum basic products, due to their economic and environmental benefits.     

An optimal electricity allocation model for sustainable resource use in India

Energy demand is increasing rapidly because of developments in the agricultural, industrial, commercial and transportation sectors. Improved lifestyle and population rise are other reasons for the increase in energy demand. The development of an electricity allocation model will help in the proper allocation of the energy sources to meet the future electricity demand in India. In this paper, an attempt has been made to develop a fuzzy‐based linear programming, optimal electricity allocation model (OEAM) that minimizes the cost and determines the optimum allocation of different energy sources to the centralized and decentralized power generation in India. The potential of energy sources, energy demand, efficiency of the energy systems, emission released by the energy systems and carbon tax for the emissions released by each system are the main factors that influence the pattern of electricity distribution and are used as constraints in the model. Executing this model results in an optimal electricity distribution pattern. The results indicate that the commercial energy sources such as coal, nuclear and hydro would meet nearly 68% of total electricity demand and that the remaining 32% of the electricity demand will be met by the renewable energy sources, namely, wind, biomass, biogas, solid waste, cogeneration and mini hydel for the year 2020. Various scenarios are also developed by varying the demand, potential, emission and carbon tax. This study will help in the formation of strategies for effective utilization of energy sources in India. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

On-site hydrogen production from transportation fuels: An overview and techno-economic assessment

Hydrogen production for future transportation applications have received increased interest due to its inherent environmental and efficiency benefits. Currently, hydrogen is produced from natural gas and naphtha for its use in refineries for clean fuel production along with its use in ammonia production. The hydrogen demand will grow in future for hydrogen based fuel cell vehicles. Significant research is underway to produce hydrogen from renewable and fossil fuel sources. However, on-site hydrogen production using existing fuel and gas station infrastructure to support future hydrogen based fuel cell vehicles has advantages over other approaches. In this context, this study is focused on a techno-economic assessment of hydrogen production from transportation fuels using different conversion technologies. In addition, detailed economics with higher capacity and volume of the hydrogen stations are also discussed. Finally, a detailed roadmap is presented to produce on-site hydrogen at commercial scale.     

Energy-output ratios and sectoral energy use: The case of Southeast Asian countries

The relation between energy consumption and output is studied for six developing economies in Southeast Asia. The changing structure of energy demands by consuming sectors and the effects of this on energy-output ratios are analysed. It is found that the commercial energy-output ratio increased for most of the period between 1960 and 1982. The five factors responsible for the increasing ratio of commercial energy to output ratio were: the rising share of industrial output in GDP; the substitution of commercial for non-commercial fuels; the strong demand for transportation energy use; the rise in electricity demand in the household/commercial sector; and the expansion of the energy conversion industries. There were systematic variations in the composition of energy uses by sectors both over time and across countries. The basic features observed at a sectoral level also support the validity of the five factors mentioned above.     

Direct carbon footprint of hydrogen generation via PEM and alkaline electrolysers using various electrical energy sources and considering cell characteristics

Hydrogen supplying to industrial users is currently the major hydrogen business worldwide and the demand for hydrogen is almost entirely supplied from fossil fuels. In the last years a widespread interest on hydrogen has grown as energy vector for the decarbonization of multiple sectors, including industry, transport and buildings. Nevertheless, the impact of natural gas and other fossil fuels substitution with hydrogen is highly affected by the mix of different technologies and energy sources applied for hydrogen generation.The paper aims to investigate current CO₂ emissions related with hydrogen generation in Australia and Italy by means of PEM and alkaline technologies; and to evaluate the potential impact considering cell characteristics variation and 3 scenarios based on energy mix. A sensitivity analysis is performed to identify the critical parameters. Based on experimental data, the energy consumption for hydrogen production using PEM technology is more sensitive to cell voltage compared to current density, which indicates the importance of cell manufacturing and electrolyte resistance. In addition, by performing sensitivity analysis regarding energy sources scenarios it is found that carbon dioxide emission in Australia is more sensitive to renewable energy sources rather than Italy.     

Assessment of forest biomass for use as energy. GIS-based analysis of geographical availability and locations of wood-fired power plants in Portugal

Following the European Union strategy concerning renewable energy (RE), Portugal established in their national policy programmes that the production of electrical energy from RE should reach 45% of the total supply by 2010. Since Portugal has large forest biomass resources, a significant part of this energy will be obtained from this source. In addition to the two existing electric power plants, with 22 MW of power capacity, 13 new power plants having a total of 86.4 MW capacity are in construction. Together these could generate a combination of electrical and thermal energy, known as combined heat and power (CHP) production. As these power plants will significantly increase the exploitation of forests resources, this article evaluates the potential quantities of available forest biomass residue for that purpose. In addition to examining the feasibility of producing both types of energy, we also examine the potential for producing only electric energy. Results show that if only electricity is generated some regions will need to have alternative fuel sources to fulfil the demand. However, if cogeneration is implemented the wood fuel resource will be sufficient to fulfill the required capacity demand.     

Enabling technologies for industrial energy demand management

This state-of-science review sets out to provide an indicative assessment of enabling technologies for reducing UK industrial energy demand and carbon emissions to 2050. In the short term, i.e. the period that will rely on current or existing technologies, the road map and priorities are clear. A variety of available technologies will lead to energy demand reduction in industrial processes, boiler operation, compressed air usage, electric motor efficiency, heating and lighting, and ancillary uses such as transport. The prospects for the commercial exploitation of innovative technologies by the middle of the 21st century are more speculative. Emphasis is therefore placed on the range of technology assessment methods that are likely to provide policy makers with a guide to progress in the development of high-temperature processes, improved materials, process integration and intensification, and improved industrial process control and monitoring. Key among the appraisal methods applicable to the energy sector is thermodynamic analysis, making use of energy, exergy and ‘exergoeconomic’ techniques. Technical and economic barriers will limit the improvement potential to perhaps a 30% cut in industrial energy use, which would make a significant contribution to reducing energy demand and carbon emissions in UK industry. Non-technological drivers for, and barriers to, the take-up of innovative, low-carbon energy technologies for industry are also outlined.     

Fuel choice and aggregate energy demand in the residential and commercial sectors

The energy demand response of the residential and commercial sectors to fuel price changes is of increasing importance to public policy makers. In this paper, the demands for energy in both sectors are examined separately using a refined data base. For each sector, a multinomial logit formulation is utilized, along with an aggregate demand equation to determine analytically short- and long-run fuel price elasticities of demand for the major fuels consumed. It is found that increases in energy prices have a greater effect on energy demand in the commercial sector. Furthermore, in both sectors, raising electricity prices has a greater effect for conserving energy (both end-use and primary) than do equal price rises for natural gas or heating oils.     

Industrial cogeneration: Problems and promise

Considerable potential for industrial cogeneration of electricity and process heat is currently available in the U.S. A number of prime mover technologies suitable for application in cogeneration facilities are already technically proven in other conventional systems. Industries with particularly attractive opportunities include paper and pulp, chemical, petroleum refining, iron and steel, and cement manufacturers. The apparent technical potential is limited significantly by economic, environmental, and regulatory factors, as well as by the need for new dimensions in industry and utility cooperation. Although substantial societal benefits in the form of energy conservation are available from a strong commitment to industrial cogeneration systems, many obstacles to systems deployment remain, which will not be readily overcome without the adoption of policy incentives.     

H2 Optimization and Fuel Cells Application on Electrical Distribution System and Its Commercial Viability in Australia

Conventional energy technologies are not environmentally friendly, are not renewable, and also the cost of using fossil and nuclear fuels will go higher and higher (anecdotal evidence suggests that consumers will be paying three times their current bill 5 years from now). Therefore, renewable energy sources will play important roles in electricity generation. This paper highlights the advantages of renewable technologies, like future prospects for the poor population, being environmentally friendly, and also available in abundance. This paper points outs the factors seeking hydrogen energy and fuel cell technology to eradicate environmental disasters. This paper is significant as it looks into optimal utilization of renewable energy sources with major emphasis on H₂ optimization and fuel cells application utilizing cogeneration technology. This paper discusses the multiple hydrogen production pathways from different sources, including renewable and nonrenewable sources, H₂ safety, and also barriers to use of hydrogen energy. This paper recommends different types of quantitative and qualitative methods for optimal energy planning, and different types of fuel cells are also discussed. This paper explains a hybrid system inclusive of renewable energy, with its types and benefits. Finally, this paper concludes that Australia could switch from conventional fossil fuel technology to hybrid energy inclusive of renewable energy.     

A review on the renewable energy development in Algeria: Current perspective,energy scenario and sustainability issues

The quality of life and safeness of the present and future generations are strongly intertwined with the availability of energy sources and the sustainability of the energy infrastructure. Energy consumption in developed countries grows at a rate of approximately 1% per year, and that of developing countries, 5% per year (Muneer et al., 2005 [1]). Present reserves of oil and natural gas can only cover consumption at this rate for the next 50 years in the case of oil, and for the next 70 years in the case of natural gas. Therefore, one of the fundamental priorities for a country such as Algeria is to use several renewable energies (RE) sources and environmentally friendly energy conversion technologies. Algeria is endowed with large reserves of energy sources, mainly hydrocarbons and a considerable potential for the utilisation of RE sources especially with respect to solar energy. Algeria has the potential to be one of the major contributors in solar energy and become a role model to other countries in the world. RE are now one of the major elements of Algeria's energy policy and in view of boosting the national effort in terms of RE beyond 2011, Algeria has developed a national programme for the period 2011–2030 to promote concrete actions in the fields of energy efficiency and RE in line with the approach adopted by the government on February 3, 2011. Besides, it confirms Algerian's ambition to become an international hub for industrial and energy production and exportation in the solar sector. With this in mind, along with the environmental responsibility issues, public awareness gradually increased over the last seven years and alternative energy resources have become a new area of interest. As a tangible target, the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM) strategic plan aims to reach a 40% share of RE (mainly solar) in electric energy production by 2030. The various future projects are all factors that will undoubtedly give Algeria an important role in the implementation of RE technology in North Africa, the capacity for providing sustainable supply of cost-effective electricity from RE sources for the needs of the population, and the possibility of even exporting 10,000 MW to neighbouring and European market. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the existing renewable energy sector and a forecast for demand growth, additional capacity, investment requirements and Algeria's ambitious objectives of use of RE and environment protection. The paper also discusses the current energy scenario and explores the alternative energy like solar and wind to ensure energy security supply, reliability, greater efficiency in energy conversion, transmission and utilisation. Particular attention is paid to Algeria's global and sustainable solutions of the environmental challenges and the problems of conservation of fossil energy resources under the clean development mechanism (CDM) structure. The report also provides a detailed analysis of the existing renewable energy sector and a forecast for demand growth, additional capacity, and investment requirements     

Energy scenarios for New Zealand

Three scenarios for New Zealand's energy future have been researched. Each scenario has a theme which is used as a basis for calculation of energy demand in all sectors. The energy supply is worked out using a strategy which is also based on the theme. The themes tend to be an exaggeration of what is seen of three major thought streams present in our society today and are as follows:Continuation. Continuation of policies and trends which apply today; emphasis on economic growth measured in terms of per capital productivity; continued exploitation of the country's potential for agricultural and industrial development.Low New Zealand Pollution. Postulation of a society which sets out to minimise site-specific pollution especially from industry, power production, while still have comparatively high economic growth.Limited Growth. Economic growth rate reduced to zero by 2000; move to renewable sources for energy; concern for environmental degradation.The scenarios also provide a body of information on energy issues and discuss options which are significantly different from those being followed today. Of particular interest are the issues of liquid fuels, fossil fuels, nuclear energy and alternative technologies, as well as an indication of the range of energy demand under the three scenario themes.     

Introducing technology learning for energy technologies in a national CGE model through soft links to global and national energy models

This paper describes a method to model the influence by global policy scenarios, particularly spillover of technology learning, on the energy service demand of the non-energy sectors of the national economy. It is exemplified by Norway. Spillover is obtained from the technology-rich global Energy Technology Perspective model operated by the International Energy Agency. It is provided to a national hybrid model where a national bottom-up Markal model carries forward spillover into a national top-down CGE¹ model at a disaggregated demand category level. Spillover of technology learning from the global energy technology market will reduce national generation costs of energy carriers. This may in turn increase demand in the non-energy sectors of the economy because of the rebound effect. The influence of spillover on the Norwegian economy is most pronounced for the production level of industrial chemicals and for the demand for electricity for residential energy services. The influence is modest, however, because all existing electricity generating capacity is hydroelectric and thus compatible with the low emission policy scenario. In countries where most of the existing generating capacity must be replaced by nascent energy technologies or carbon captured and storage the influence on demand is expected to be more significant.     

我国经济发展对电耗的影响及电力的需求浅析

能/电耗的变化与经济发展所处的时期有关。针对我国经济快速发展,从电力角度分析我国工业化进程需经历的三个时期:1949～1979年高度工业重型化时期(工业化初期);1980～2000年高度工业轻型化时期(工业化中期);2001～202X年工业重轻基本协调时期(工业化后期)。由于各时期的特点不同,其能耗电耗也不同。现阶段只有能耗下降超过3%时,电耗才会下降。我国完成工业化进程对电力的需求为:人均用电量达到4500kWh左右,人均发电装机容量达到1kW左右;第二产业用电比重在60%左右,第三产业用电比重高于17%,居民生活用电比重20%左右。     

Feasibility of an energy conversion system in Canada involving large-scale integrated hydrogen production using solid fuels

A large-scale hydrogen production system is proposed using solid fuels and designed to increase the sustainability of alternative energy forms in Canada, and the technical and economic aspects of the system within the Canadian energy market are examined. The work investigates the feasibility and constraints in implementing such a system within the energy infrastructure of Canada. The proposed multi-conversion and single-function system produces hydrogen in large quantities using energy from solid fuels such as coal, tar sands, biomass, municipal solid waste (MSW) and agricultural/forest/industrial residue. The proposed system involves significant technology integration, with various energy conversion processes (such as gasification, chemical looping combustion, anaerobic digestion, combustion power cycles-electrolysis and solar–thermal converters) interconnected to increase the utilization of solid fuels as much as feasible within cost, environmental and other constraints. The analysis involves quantitative and qualitative assessments based on (i) energy resources availability and demand for hydrogen, (ii) commercial viability of primary energy conversion technologies, (iii) academia, industry and government participation, (iv) sustainability and (v) economics. An illustrative example provides an initial road map for implementing such a system.     

Energy efficiency achievements in China׳s industrial and transport sectors: How do they rate?

China is experiencing intensified industrialisation and motorisation. In the world׳s largest emerging economy, energy efficiency is expected to play a critical role in the ever-rising demand for energy. Based on factual overviews and numerical analysis, this article carries out an in-depth investigation into the effectiveness of policies announced or implemented in recent decades targeted at energy conservation in the energy intensive manufacturing and transportation sectors. It highlights nine energy intensive sectors that achieved major improvements in their energy technology efficiency efforts. Under the umbrella of the 11th Five-Year Plan, these sectors׳ performances reflect the effectiveness of China׳s energy conservation governance. Numerous actions have been taken in China to reduce the road transport sector׳s demand for energy and its GHG emissions by implementing fuel economy standards, promoting advanced energy efficient vehicles, and alternative fuels.Coal-based energy saving technologies, especially industrial furnace technologies, are critical for China׳s near and medium-term energy saving. In the long run, renewable energy development and expanding the railway transport system are the most effective ways to reduce energy use and GHG emissions in China. Fuel economy standards could reduce oil consumption and GHGs by 34–35 per cent.     

Energy efficiency barriers in commercial and industrial firms in Ukraine: An empirical analysis

Improvement in energy efficiency is one of the main options to reduce energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions. However, large-scale deployment of energy-efficient technologies is constrained by several factors. Employing a survey of 509 industrial and commercial firms throughout Ukraine and a generalized ordered logit model, we quantified the economic, behavioral, and institutional barriers that may impede the deployment of energy-efficient technologies. Our analysis shows that behavioral barriers resulted from lack of information, knowledge, and awareness are major impediments to the adoption of energy-efficient technologies in Ukraine, and that financial barriers may further impede investments in these technologies especially for small firms. This suggests that carefully targeted information provisions and energy audits will enhance Ukrainian firms' investments in energy-efficient technologies to save energy consumption, improve productivity, and reduce carbon emissions from the productive sectors.     

Allocation of energy resources for power generation in India: Business as usual and energy efficiency

This paper deals with MARKAL allocations for various energy sources, in India, for Business As Usual (BAU) scenario and for the case of exploitation of energy saving potential in various sectors of economy. In the BAU scenario, the electrical energy requirement will raise up to 5000 bKwh units per year or 752 GW of installed capacity with major consumers being in the industry, domestic and service sectors. This demand can be met by a mix of coal, hydro, nuclear and wind technologies. Other reneawbles i.e. solar and biomass will start contributing from the year 2040 onwards. By full exploitation of energy saving potential, the annual electrical energy demand gets reduced to 3061 bKwh (or 458 GW), a reduction of 38.9%.The green house gas emissions reduce correspondingly. In this scenario, market allocations for coal, gas and large hydro become stagnant after the year 2015.     

广东省能流图与能源平衡分析

改革开放30年来,广东省已成为中国经济最发达的地区之一,经济的快速发展和大规模城市化建设也给能源供应和环境保护带来巨大压力。为了保障能源的充足供应和环境、经济的可持续发展,有必要从能源供给、转换、消费等方面对广东省能源平衡的全过程进行分析。根据2007年广东省能源平衡表．绘制出2007年广东省能流图。广东省能源消费中化石能源比重偏高,以煤炭、石油和天然气为主。而资源丰富的可再生能源比重偏低;能源消费总量增长迅速,对外依存度高,能源安全保障难度高;化石能源消费还带来了环境恶化和气候变化;火力发电效率与先进国家相比还有提高的空间。广东省工业部门消耗的能源最多,其次是交通运输和仓储邮政业。再次是城镇和农村居民生活,此外广东省对油品和电力等优质能源的需求也迅速扩大。鉴于此,建议在广东本地开发低碳新能源。包括核能、新能源与可再生能源等;充分开发利用国内国外两种资源、两个市场,进一步加强能源运输传送能力建设;提高火力发电效率应以技术改进为主,以优化燃料构成为辅;在工业上推进节能高效先进技术的应用,加快第l_产业的发展,在交通上推进高效率智能低排放的运输方式,鼓励居民采用并不降低舒适度的低碳生活方式和生活习惯。