Distortion-tolerant three-dimensional object recognition with digital holography

We present a technique to implement three-dimensional (3-D) object recognition based on phase-shift digital holography. We use a nonlinear composite correlation filter to achieve distortion tolerance. We take advantage of the properties of holograms to make the composite filter by using one single hologram. Experiments are presented to illustrate the recognition of a 3-D object in the presence of out-of-plane rotation and longitudinal shift along the z axis.     

Shift-invariant three-dimensional object recognition by means of digital holography

We present an optoelectronic method to analyze three-dimensional (3D) scenes that is able to detect the presence, and also the position and orientation, of a reference 3D object. The data-acquisition procedure is based on digital holography. A phase-shifting interferometer records a single digital Fresnel hologram of the 3D scene with an intensity-recording device. Holographic information of the 3D reference object is also obtained with the same method. Correlation techniques are then applied to recognize the presence and position of the 3D reference object in the 3D scene. The technique also allows us to detect the 3D reference with a small out-of-plane rotation. Preliminary experimental results are presented that demonstrate the theory.     

Compression of digital holograms for three-dimensional object reconstruction and recognition

We present the results of applying lossless and lossy data compression to a three-dimensional object reconstruction and recognition technique based on phase-shift digital holography. We find that the best lossless (Lempel-Ziv, Lempel-Ziv-Welch, Huffman, Burrows-Wheeler) compression rates can be expected when the digital hologram is stored in an intermediate coding of separate data streams for real and imaginary components. The lossy techniques are based on subsampling, quantization, and discrete Fourier transformation. For various degrees of speckle reduction, we quantify the number of Fourier coefficients that can be removed from the hologram domain, and the lowest level of quantization achievable, without incurring significant loss in correlation performance or significant error in the reconstructed object domain.     

Real-time three-dimensional object recognition with multiple perspectives imaging

A novel system for recognizing three-dimensional (3D) objects by use of multiple perspectives imaging is proposed. A 3D object under incoherent illumination is projected into an array of two-dimensional (2D) elemental images by use of a microlens array. Each elemental 2D image corresponds to a different perspective of the 3D object. Multiple perspectives imaging based on integral photography has been used for 3D display. In this way, the whole set of 2D elemental images records 3D information about the input object. After an optical incoherent-to-coherent conversion, an optical processor is employed to perform the correlation between the input and the reference 3D objects. Use of micro-optics allows us to process the 3D information in real time and with a compact optical system. To the best of our knowledge this 3D processor is the first to apply the principle of integral photography to 3D image recognition. We present experimental results obtained with both a digital and an optical implementation of the system. We also show that the system can recognize a slightly out-of-plane rotated 3D object.     

Three-dimensional displacement measurement for diffuse object using phase-shifting digital holography with polarization imaging camera

The amount of displacement of a diffused object can be measured using phase-shifting digital holography with a polarization imaging camera. Four digital holograms in quadrature are extracted from the polarization imaging camera and used to calculate the phase hologram. Two Fourier transforms of the phase holograms are calculated before and after the displacement of the object. A phase slope is subsequently obtained from the phase distribution of division between the two Fourier transforms. The slope of the phase distribution is proportional to the lateral displacement of the object. The sensitivity is less than one pixel size in the lateral direction of the movement. The longitudinal component of the displacement can be also measured separately from the intercept on the phase axis along the phase distribution of the division between two Fourier transforms of the phase holograms.     

Curved computational integral imaging reconstruction technique for resolution-enhanced display of three-dimensional object images

A novel curved computational integral imaging reconstruction (C-CIIR) technique for the virtually curved integral imaging (VCII) system is proposed, and its performances are analyzed. In the C-CIIR model, an additional virtual large-aperture lens is included to provide a multidirectional curving effect in the reconstruction process, and its effect is analyzed in detail by using the ABCD matrix. With this method, resolution-enhanced 3D object images can be computationally reconstructed from the picked-up elemental images of the VCII system. To confirm the feasibility of the proposed model, some experiments are carried out. Experiments revealed that the sampling rate in the VCII system could be kept at a maximum value within some range of the distance z, whereas in the conventional integral imaging system it linearly decreased as the distance z increased. It is also shown that resolutions of the object images reconstructed by the C-CIIR method have been significantly improved compared with those of the conventional CIIR method.     

Miniaturized digital holography sensor for distal three-dimensional endoscopy

A miniaturized sensor head for endoscopic measurements based on digital holography is described. The system was developed to measure the shape and the three-dimensional deformation of objects located at places to which there is no access by common measurement systems. A miniaturized optical sensor, including a complete digital holographic interferometer with a CCD camera, is placed at the end of a flexible endoscope. The diameter of the head is smaller than 10 mm. The system enables interferometric measurements to be made at speeds of as many as five reconstructions per second, and it can be used outside the laboratory under normal environmental conditions. Shape measurements are performed with two wavelengths for contouring, and the deformation is measured by digital holographic interferometry. To obtain full three-dimensional data in displacement measurements we illuminate the object sequentially from three different illumination directions. To increase the lateral resolution we use temporal phase shifting.     

Fractional profilometry correlator for three-dimensional object recognition

A novel method for three-dimensional shape recognition is proposed. It combines the Fourier-transform-profilometry technique with a two-dimensional fractional correlation algorithm. A grating is projected onto the object surface, resulting in a distorted grating pattern that carries information about the height and the shape of the object. Three-dimensional objects are recognized by a fractional correlator by use of the transformed complex amplitude. An optoelectronic hybrid implementation is also suggested.     

Mathematical modeling of triangle-mesh-modeled three-dimensional surface objects for digital holography

We develop a mathematical model of triangle-mesh-modeled three-dimensional (3D) surface objects for digital holography. The proposed mathematical model includes the analytic angular spectrum representation of image light fields emitted from 3D surface objects with occlusion and the computation method for the developed light field representation. Reconstruction of computer-generated holograms synthesized by using the developed model is demonstrated experimentally.     

Joint Applied Optics and Chinese Optics Letters feature introduction: digital holography and three-dimensional imaging

This feature issue serves as a pilot issue promoting the joint issue of Applied Optics and Chinese Optics Letters. It focuses upon topics of current relevance to the community working in the area of digital holography and 3-D imaging.     

Detection of surface strain by three-dimensional digital holography

Three-dimensional digital holography with three object-illuminating beams has been successfully used for the detection of surface strain in metallic objects. The optical setup that uses illuminating beams to irradiate the object from three directions means that all three object surface displacement components, x, y, and z, can be independently calculated and used to find the strain gradients on the surface. The results show the conversion of the complete surface displacement field into a surface strain field. The method is capable of measuring microstrains for out-of-plane surface displacements of less than 10 microm.     

Polarization imaging by use of digital holography

We present what we believe to be a new digital holographic imaging method that is able to determine simultaneously the distributions of intensity, phase, and polarization state at the surface of a specimen on the basis of a single image acquisition. Two reference waves with orthogonal polarization states interfere with the object wave to create a hologram that is recorded on a CCD camera. Two wave fronts, one for each perpendicular polarization state, are numerically reconstructed in intensity and phase. Combining the intensity and the phase distributions of these two wave fronts permits the determination of all the components of the Jones vector of the object-wave front. We show that this method can be used to image and measure the distribution of the polarization state at the surface of a specimen, and the obtained results indicate that precise quantitative measurements of the polarization state can be achieved. An application of the method to image the birefringence of a stressed polymethyl methacrylate sample is presented.     

Improved three-dimensional imaging with a digital holography microscope with a source of partial spatial coherence

A digital holographic technique is implemented in a microscope for three-dimensional imaging reconstruction. The setup is a Mach-Zehnder interferometer that uses an incoherent light source to remove the coherent noise that is inherent in the laser sources. A phase-stepping technique determines the optical phase in the image plane of the microscope. Out-of-focus planes are refocused by digital holographic computations, thus considerably enlarging the depth of investigation without the need to change the optical focus mechanically. The technique can be implemented in transmission for various magnification ratios and can cover a wide range of applications. Performances and limitations of the microscope are theoretically evaluated. Experimental results for a test target are given, and examples of two applications in particle localization and investigation of biological sample are provided.     

Multi-plane imaging for arbitrary reconstruction positions in digital holography

A novel method for multi-plane imaging in digital holography is proposed: holograms of objects located at various places are recorded and then reconstructed simultaneously through one-step Fresnel diffraction using the quadratic distorted phase factor (QDPF). The theory of one-step Fresnel diffraction with the QDPF is deduced and experimental results support the theoretical investigation.     

Spherical nonlinear correlations for global invariant three-dimensional object recognition

We define a nonlinear filtering based on correlations on unit spheres to obtain both rotation- and scale-invariant three-dimensional (3D) object detection. Tridimensionality is expressed in terms of range images. The phase Fourier transform (PhFT) of a range image provides information about the orientations of the 3D object surfaces. When the object is sequentially rotated, the amplitudes of the different PhFTs form a unit radius sphere. On the other hand, a scale change is equivalent to a multiplication of the amplitude of the PhFT by a constant factor. The effect of both rotation and scale changes for 3D objects means a change in the intensity of the unit radius sphere. We define a 3D filtering based on nonlinear operations between spherical correlations to achieve both scale- and rotation-invariant 3D object recognition.     

Rainbow holography of a diffuse three-dimensional object with a synthetic slit

Abstract

A study of rainbow holography with a movable synthetic slit in three-dimensional (3D) space is presented. A diffuse 3D object and an imaging lens are translated uniformly along the same direction with different (or identical) speeds in the X-Y plane. The spatial frequencies of the coherent wave illuminating the object are α, 0 and γ. As a result, the synthetic slit in rainbow holography is presented at a position which depends on the translational direction of the object and the imaging lens, their relative speeds, the spatial frequency of the illuminating wave in the X ₀ direction, and the relative distance of the reference source and the reconstruction source from the holographic plate. Theoretical analysis and some experimental results are presented.     

Measurement of curvature and twist of a deformed object using digital holography

Measurement of curvature and twist is an important aspect in the study of object deformation. In recent years, several methods have been proposed to determine curvature and twist of a deformed object using digital shearography. Here we propose a novel method to determine the curvature and twist of a deformed object using digital holography and a complex phasor. A sine/cosine transformation method and two-dimensional short time Fourier transform are proposed subsequently to process the wrapped phase maps. It is shown that high-quality phase maps corresponding to curvature and twist can be obtained. An experiment is conducted to demonstrate the validity of the proposed method.     

Recognition and classification of three-dimensional phase objects by digital Fresnel holography

We demonstrate the validity of wavelet-based processing for recognition and classification of three-dimensional phase objects. One Fresnel digital hologram of each of the three-dimensional (3-D) phase objects to be classified is recorded. The electronic holograms are processed digitally to permit 3-D object information to be retrieved as two-dimensional digital complex images. We use a Mexican-hat wavelet- matched filter (WMF) to enhance the correlation peak and discriminate between the objects. The WMF performs a wavelet transform (WT) to enhance the significant features of the images and the correlation of the WT coefficients thus obtained. We compare the feasibility of a WMF-based object classifier with the matched-filter-based classifier to classify our four 3-D phase objects in a 3-D scene into true or false classes with minimal error.     

Tunable viewing scope of three-dimensional integral imaging

This article defines the tunable viewing scope (TVS) of three-dimensional integral imaging (3DII) considering the human eye's performance, which could provide a fine viewing effect without flipping or information missing. TVS required by different applications is achieved through an innovative method, attaching the reserved blank to the elemental images. The viewing comfort improvement resulting from TVS is verified by practical experiments, which indicates that it would be promising for future applications of 3DII.     

Color image generation of a three-dimensional object with rainbow holography and a one-wavelength laser

Based on conventional one-step true-color rainbow holography, a new true-color rainbow holography of a three-dimensional diffused object is presented. By means of conjugate reconstruction with a onewavelength laser of a master hologram recorded with three laser wavelengths, the hologram can be transferred to a single type of recording material with a single exposure to achieve true-color holographic display. Therefore a photoresist master can be produced for embossing copy.