The mechanism of bicarbonate reabsorption in the proximal and distal tubules of the kidney. 1965

The mechanism of HCO3- reabsorption in proximal and distal tubules was examined in rats undergoing NaHCO3 diuresis. The steady-state intratubular pH was measured with pH-sensitive glass microelectrodes and compared with the equilibrium pH calculated from the HCO3- concentration of the tubular fluid (measured with quinhydrone electrodes) and plasma Pco2. In the proximal tubule the intratubular pH and the equilibrium pH were identical, indicating no accumulation of excess H2CO3. After inhibition of carbonic anhydrase, however, intratubular pH was significantly lower (0.85 pH U) than the equilibrium pH. It was concluded that HCO3- reabsorption in the proximal tubule was mediated by H+ secretion, but that carbonic anhydrase located in the luminal membrane of the cell prevented H2CO3 from accumulating in the tubular fluid. In the distal tubule the intratubular pH was 0.85 U lower than the equilibrium pH. This difference could be obliterated by an intravenous injection of carbonic anhydrase. It was concluded that HCO3- reabsorption in this segment was also accomplished by H+ secretion. The accumulation of excess H2CO3 in the tubular fluid indicated that, in contrast to the proximal tubule, carbonic anhydrase was not located in the luminal membrane of distal tubular cells.     

Models of CO2 concentrating mechanisms in microalgae taking into account cell and chloroplast structure

Detailed mathematical models have been developed for the functioning of CO2 concentration mechanisms in microalgae. The models treat a microalgal cell as several compartments: pyrenoid, chloroplast stroma, cytoplasm and periplasmic space. Cases for both the active bicarbonate transport through the plasmalemma and the passive CO2 diffusion through it with the subsequent concentrating of CO2 inside the chloroplast are analyzed. CO2 evolution from bicarbonate inside the pyrenoid is modeled. The great diffusion resistance for CO2 flux from the pyrenoid is caused by a starch envelope and the concentric thylakoid membranes surrounding it. The role of carbonic anhydrase in the periplasmic space, cytoplasm and inside the chloroplast is evaluated numerically. The models also offer an explanation for the absence of 'short-circuited' inorganic carbon fluxes between the external medium and the cytoplasm under active bicarbonate transport through the plasmalemma and in the presence of carbonic anhydrase in the cytoplasm. If the cytoplasm is driven from the space between a chloroplast envelope and plasmalemma upon the microalgae adaptation to low concentration of the dissolved inorganic carbon, the inorganic carbon leak might be avoided. The models reproduce accurately the majority of known experimental data. The high efficiency of CO2 concentrating mechanisms in microalgae can be explained by a considerable diffusion resistance for CO2 flux from the pyrenoid and by the effective scavenging of CO2 leaking outward from the chloroplast to cytoplasm and from cell to periplasmic space.     

某铀矿地浸浸出液主要组分计算及其关系分析

应用地球化学模式PHREEQC计算某铀矿淡化少试剂地浸新工艺现场试验浸出液的主要组分铀、碳酸衍生物的存在形式和条件。结果表明,H_2CO_3、HCo_3~-和CO_3_~(2-)是碳酸衍生物在水中主要存在形式,UO_2(CO_2)_2~(2-)、UO_2(CO_3)_3~(4-)、UO_2CO_3为六价铀的主要存在形式。讨论了中性条件下主要组分各种存在形式之间的转换、出铀浓度与碳酸衍生物之间的关系,揭示了地浸过程中水岩作用机理。     

The effect of 4,4'-diisothiocyanato-stilbene-2,2'-disulfonate on CO2 permeability of the red blood cell membrane

It has long been assumed that the red cell membrane is highly permeable to gases because the molecules of gases are small, uncharged, and soluble in lipids, such as those of a bilayer. The disappearance of 12C18O16O from a red cell suspension as the 18O exchanges between labeled CO2 + HCO3- and unlabeled HOH provides a measure of the carbonic anhydrase (CA) activity (acceleration, or A) inside the cell and of the membrane self-exchange permeability to HCO3- (Pm,HCO-3). To test this technique, we added sufficient 4, 4'-diisothiocyanato-stilbene-2,2'-disulfonate (DIDS) to inhibit all the HCO3-/Cl- transport protein (Band III or capnophorin) in a red cell suspension. We found that DIDS reduced Pm,HCO-3 as expected, but also appeared to reduce intracellular A, although separate experiments showed it has no effect on CA activity in homogenous solution. A decrease in Pm,CO2 would explain this finding. With a more advanced computational model, which solves for CA activity and membrane permeabilities to both CO2 and HCO3-, we found that DIDS inhibited both Pm,HCO-3 and Pm,CO2, whereas intracellular CA activity remained unchanged. The mechanism by which DIDS reduces CO2 permeability may not be through an action on the lipid bilayer itself, but rather on a membrane transport protein, implying that this is a normal route for at least part of red cell CO2 exchange.     

Effects of HCO3- on cell composition of rabbit ciliary epithelium: a new model for aqueous humor secretion

PURPOSE: To determine whether the Na+-K+-2Cl- symport or the parallel Na+/H+ and Cl-/HCO3- antiports provide the dominant pathway for NaCl uptake into the ciliary epithelium. Both pathways are known to support NaCl entry from the stroma into the pigmented ciliary epithelial (PE) cells, after which Na+ and Cl- diffuse across the gap junctions into the nonpigmented ciliary epithelial (NPE) cells and are released into the aqueous humor. METHODS: Rabbit iris ciliary bodies were preincubated in HCO3-/CO2-containing or HCO3-/CO2-free solutions before quick freezing, cryosectioning, dehydration, and electron probe x-ray microanalysis. RESULTS: The NPE and the PE cells contained more K and Cl when incubated with bicarbonate. Inhibition of carbonic anhydrase with 0.5 mM acetazolamide had little effect in HCO3--free medium but prevented the increase in Cl in both cell types in HCO3-/CO2 solution. Inhibition of the Na+-K+-2Cl- symport with 10 to 500 microM bumetanide caused Cl loss from both cell types in HCO3--free solution, but bumetanide produced a paradoxical increase in Cl and Na in HCO3-/CO2 solution. Together, acetazolamide and bumetanide resulted in significant Cl loss in HCO3--free solution and prevented the gains of Cl and Na in HCO3-/CO2 solution. CONCLUSIONS: The present results indicate that the dominant entry pathway of NaCl from the stroma into the ciliary epithelial syncytium is through an acetazolamide-inhibitable Cl-/HCO3 and a parallel Na+/H+ antiport. The dominant release pathways into the aqueous humor appear to be a Na+-K+-2Cl-symport, which can be outwardly directed under physiological conditions, together with the Na+/K+-exchange pumps and Cl- channels.     

Interstitial PCO2 and pH in rat hippocampal slices measured by means of a novel fast CO2/H(+)-sensitive microelectrode based on a PVC-gelled membrane

We describe here the construction and properties of a double-barrelled microelectrode (tip diameter 4-10 microns) which permits simultaneous measurements of PCO2 and pH, and which has a 90% response time of only one or a few seconds for a step change in PCO2. The fast response of the CO2-sensitive barrel is due to (i) the use of a PVC-gelled (tridodecylamine-containing) membrane solution which enables the construction of extremely short (> or = 4 microns), yet mechanically stable, membrane columns, and (ii) the presence of carbonic anhydrase in the filling solution. Recordings made in the pyramidal layer of area CA1 in rat hippocampal slices showed that the deviation in the acid direction of the basal interstitial pH (pH0) from that of the perfusion solution was attributable to a higher PCO2 level within the tissue. Most of the late acid shift evoked by stimulation of the Schaffer collaterals (5- to 20-s trains at 10 Hz) could also be explained on the basis of an accumulation of interstitial CO2 at a constant HCO3- concentration. This conclusion was supported by the finding that inhibition of extracellular carbonic anhydrase activity by 10 microM benzolamide completely abolished the activity-induced fall in pH0, but not the increase in PCO2. The initial stimulus-induced alkalosis was accompanied by a slight decrease in PCO2 only, implying a parallel increase in the interstitial HCO3- concentration. Benzolamide produced a dramatic enhancement of the early alkaline shift as well as of the simultaneous fall in PCO2. The latter effect of the drug unmasks a cellular CO2 sink that is induced by neuronal activity.     

基于渗流-化学-应力多场耦合的砂岩型铀矿CO2+O2地浸开采的数值模拟

为探明不同影响因素对CO2+O2地浸采铀效果的影响规律和影响机理，首先建立了适合CO2+O2地浸的渗流-化学-应力多场耦合数值模型，其次，结合实际现场工况，开展了注液速率、渗透率、O2配加浓度、HCO3－配加浓度和铀矿石平均品位对CO2+O2地浸采铀影响的数值模拟研究。研究表明：CO2+O2地浸过程中，抽液井铀浓度呈现“缓慢上升-快速上升-缓慢下降-趋于稳定”的阶段性变化趋势；矿层渗透率、铀矿石平均品位、O2配加浓度、HCO3－配加浓度与抽液井铀浓度呈现线性正相关关系，溶浸液的注入速率与抽液井铀浓度呈现线性负相关关系；CO2+O2地浸过程中应该选择初始渗透率大且铀品位高的矿层，同时应该适当加大O2和HCO3-的配加浓度，并控制好溶浸液注入速率，可实现铀资源的高效开采。本研究对CO2+O2地浸矿层的选择和地浸工艺的优化具有重要的指导意义。     

Intramolecular proton transfer from multiple sites in catalysis by murine carbonic anhydrase V

The hydration of CO2 catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase requires proton transfer from the zinc-bound water at the active site to solution for each cycle of catalysis. In the most efficient of the mammalian carbonic anhydrases, isozyme II, this transfer is facilitated by a proton shuttle residue, His 64. Murine carbonic anhydrase V (mCA V) has a sterically constrained tyrosine at the analogous position; it is not an effective proton shuttle, yet catalysis by this isozyme still achieves a maximal turnover in CO2 hydration of 3 x 10(5) s-1 at pH > 9. We have investigated the source of proton transfer in a truncated form of mCA V and identified several basic residues, including Lys 91 and Tyr 131, located near the mouth of the active-site cavity that contribute to proton transfer. Intramolecular proton-transfer rates between these shuttle groups and the zinc-bound water were estimated as the rate-determining step in kcat for hydration of CO2 measured by stopped-flow spectrophotometry and in the exchange of 18O between CO2 and water measured by mass spectrometry. Comparison of kcat in catalysis by Lys 91 and Tyr 131 and the corresponding double mutant showed a strong antagonistic interaction between these sites, suggesting a cooperative behavior in facilitating the proton-transfer step of catalysis. Replacing four potential proton shuttle residues produced a multiple mutant that had 10% of the catalytic turnover kcat of the wild type, suggesting that the main proton shuttles have been accounted for in mCA V. These replacements caused relatively small changes in kcat/Km for hydration, which measures the interconversion of CO2 and HCO3- in a stage of catalysis that is separate and distinct from the proton transfers; these measurements serve as a control indicating that the replacements of proton shuttles have not caused structural changes that affect reactivity at the zinc.     

CO2+O2地浸采铀强化浸出试验研究

新疆蒙其古尔铀矿床CO2+O2地浸采铀工艺中,铀浓度与HCO3-呈显著的正相关关系,但经过浸出初期后,提高CO2加入量不能有效提升体系HCO3-浓度,而对多数地浸单元的矿化条件而言,HCO3-浓度也尚未达最佳浸出需求。为此在该矿床某采区,采用补加碳酸氢铵和提高CO2加入量相配合的工艺,开展了强化浸出试验。结果表明,强化浸出效果显著,该采区浸出液中HCO3-从850 mg/L提升至1 200 mg/L,单孔铀浓度提升1.73~44.33 mg/L,集合样铀浓度提升8 mg/L。将pH调控在6.2~6.3和降低O2加入量稳定SO42-浓度,能避免强化浸出过程中发生碳酸钙和硫酸钙的沉淀,抽、注流量也并未受到影响。该强化浸出技术在多采区应用取得了良好的浸出效果和经济效益,是对该矿床CO2+O2浸出工艺的进一步优化。     

High prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in patients with non-Hodgkin''s lymphoma at the onset. Preliminary results of an Italian multicenter study]

Inhibitors of carbonic anhydrase activity have been found to increase blood and organ PCO2 and to increase blood flow (BF) in individual organs. To determine whether carbonic anhydrase inhibition coordinately induces an increase in BF in several organs, we assayed the effect of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, acetazolamide (AZ), on BF in rabbit organs using the colored microsphere (CM) assay. Eight female white rabbits were anesthetized with ketamine and urethane, and administered three sequential doses of 4 mg/kg AZ. After each dose, the rabbits were injected with 9 x 10(5) CMs of different colors, and arterial blood was collected. We found that AZ had no effect on blood pressure, body temperature, hemoglobin concentration, or PaCO2. In contrast, 12 mg/kg AZ significantly increased PaO2 and significantly decreased base excess. When we measured organ BF, we observed, in response to 12 mg/kg AZ, an 82% increase in brain BF and a 55% increase in kidney BF, but no change in BF of the liver, stomach wall, or abdominal muscle. These findings suggest that the inhibition of carbonic anhydrase activity by AZ, which decreases the rate of CO2 conversion to HCO3-, causes the retention of CO2 in tissues and organs, and thus increases BF in specific organs. Administration of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, such as AZ, may increase BF to the brain and kidney without reducing PaO2, thereby increasing the supply of oxygen in conditions involving hypoxia such as ischemia and shock.     

The catalytic properties of murine carbonic anhydrase VII

Carbonic anhydrase VII (CA VII) appears to be the most highly conserved of the active mammalian carbonic anhydrases. We have characterized the catalytic activity and inhibition properties of a recombinant murine CA VII. CA VII has steady-state constants similar to two of the most active isozymes of carbonic anhydrase, CA II and IV; also, it is very strongly inhibited by the sulfonamides ethoxzolamide and acetazolamide, yielding the lowest Ki values measured by the exchange of 18O between CO2 and water for any of the mammalian isozymes of carbonic anhydrase. The catalytic measurements of the hydration of CO2 and the dehydration of HCO3- were made by stopped-flow spectrophotometry and the exchange of 18O using mass spectrometry. Unlike the other isozymes of this class of CA, for which Kcat/K(m) is described by the single ionization of zinc-bound water, CA VII exhibits a pH profile for Kcat/K(m) for CO2 hydration described by two ionizations at pKa 6.2 and 7.5, with a maximum approaching 8 x 10(7) M-1 s-1. The pH dependence of kcat/K(m) for the hydrolysis of 4-nitrophenyl acetate could also be described by these two ionizations, yielding a maximum of 71 M-1 s-1 at pH > 9. Using a novel method that compares rates of 18O exchange and dehydration of HCO3-, we assigned values for the apparent pKa at 6.2 to the zinc-bound water and the pKa of 7.5 to His 64. The magnitude of Kcat, its pH profile, 18O-exchange data for both wild-type and a H64A mutant, and inhibition by CuSO4 and acrolein suggest that the histidine at position 64 is functioning as a proton-transfer group and is responsible for one of the observed ionizations. A truncation mutant of CA VII, in which 23 residues from the amino-terminal end were deleted, has its rate constant for intramolecular proton transfer decreased by an order of magnitude with no change in Kcat/K(m). This suggests a role for the amino-terminal end in enhancing proton transfer in catalysis by carbonic anhydrase.     

Localization and quantity of hyaluronan in urogenital organs of male and female rats

Inhibition of red cell carbonic anhydrase (CA) activity resulted in the rapid development of a respiratory acidosis (0.25 pH depression within 15 min post-injection) in the blood of trout. In the lamprey, however, the onset of the respiratory acidosis was delayed and its magnitude was less (0.18 pH depression at 6 h post-injection). Erythrocyte pH of both species decreased by about 0.12 units by 1 h after CA inhibition. These data, combined with the lack of rapid anion (Cl-/HCO3-) exchange in the red cells of agnathans but not in other lower vertebrates, support the hypotheses that (1) the majority of total CO2 in lamprey is transported within the erythrocyte, and (2) the limiting step in the evolution of a functioning Jacobs-Stewart cycle, and thus the evolution of the common mechanism of systemic CO2 transport in vertebrate blood, was the incorporation of the band-3 anion exchange protein into the membrane of the red cell.     

砂岩型铀矿石无氧化剂碱法浸出特征

为研究无氧化剂条件下砂岩铀矿碱法溶浸水岩作用过程及铀浸出特征,在实验室开展了蒸馏水浸泡和无氧化剂碱法浸出试验。结果表明,无试剂的水岩作用盐离子综合体及水中天然溶氧作用,可使铀向水中弱迁移;无氧化剂碱法浸出铀迁移强度与HCO3-浓度正相关,HCO3-浓度700～900mg/L是对浸铀影响相对显著的区间;UO2(CO3)22-和UO2(CO3)34-是无试剂和碱法浸出溶解铀的主要存在形式,两者占比与HCO3-浓度和pH相关。缺少氧化作用的碱法浸铀强度较弱,液固比1.5∶1浸出40d铀回收率17.17%～22.37%,且浸出速度衰减较快,这与矿石中的铀以四价占优有关。尽管如此,在碱性地下水体系尤其是碱法地浸退役采区,长时间内铀的迁移仍不可忽视。     

Regulation of activity and apical targeting of the Cl-/HCO3- exchanger in rat hepatocytes

To test the hypothesis that rat hepatocyte canalicular Cl-/HCO3- exchange activity might be regulated by HCO3- or protein kinase-induced changes in the apical targeting of vesicles, isolated rat hepatocytes were cultured in the presence or absence of HCO3-/CO2.Cl-/HCO3- exchange activity increased in cells cultured in the presence of HCO3-/CO2 or when stimulated by dibutyryl cAMP. Both of these effects were blocked by either colchicine or the protein kinase C agonist phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate. Fluorescence and confocal microscopy, respectively, revealed increased pericanalicular-apical membrane localization of two canalicular markers, peanut agglutinin and a 110-kDa canalicular ecto-ATPase, when hepatocyte couplets were preincubated in HCO3-/CO2-containing medium, an effect that was again blocked by colchicine. Dibutyryl cAMP also stimulated canalicular localization of the 110-kDa protein. These findings suggest that hepatocyte Cl-/HCO3- exchange activity is regulated by HCO3-/CO2 and by protein kinase A and protein kinase C agonists through microtubule-dependent targeting of vesicles containing this exchanger to the canalicular domain.     

Responses of neurons in the nucleus of the basal optic root to translational and rotational flowfields

Wild-type Arabidopsis plants, the starch-deficient mutant TL46, and the near-starchless mutant TL25 were evaluated by noninvasive in situ methods for their capacity for net CO2 assimilation, true rates of photosynthetic O2 evolution (determined from chlorophyll fluorescence measurements of photosystem II), partitioning of photosynthate into sucrose and starch, and plant growth. Compared with wild-type plants, the starch mutants showed reduced photosynthetic capacity, with the largest reduction occurring in mutant TL25 subjected to high light and increased CO2 partial pressure. The extent of stimulation of CO2 assimilation by increasing CO2 or by reducing O2 partial pressure was significantly less for the starch mutants than for wild-type plants. Under high light and moderate to high levels of CO2, the rates of CO2 assimilation and O2 evolution and the percentage inhibition of photosynthesis by low O2 were higher for the wild type than for the mutants. The relative rates of 14CO2 incorporation into starch under high light and high CO2 followed the patterns of photosynthetic capacity, with TL46 showing 31% to 40% of the starch-labeling rates of the wild type and TL25 showing less than 14% incorporation. Overall, there were significant correlations between the rates of starch synthesis and CO2 assimilation and between the rates of starch synthesis and cumulative leaf area. These results indicate that leaf starch plays an important role as a transient reserve, the synthesis of which can ameliorate any potential reduction in photosynthesis caused by feedback regulation.     

Intracellular pH regulation in bovine aortic endothelial cells: evidence of both Na+/H+ exchange and Na+-dependent Cl-/HCO3- exchange

Regulation of intracellular pH (pHi) was studied in cultured bovine aortic endothelial cells, an important cell system for cardiovascular research. Suspended cells were acidified by the NH4Cl prepulse technique as well as by exposure to CO2/HCO3-. Subsequent rates of pHi recovery were monitored using the fluorescent dye 2',7'-bis(2-carboxyethyl)-5-(6)-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF). In HCO3(-)-free solutions, an EIPA-sensitive, Na+-dependent mechanism fully accounted for realkalinization, namely the Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE). In the presence of HCO3-, an additional acid efflux mechanism was found. This one was dependent on Na+ and intracellular Cl-, EIPA-insensitive but DIDS-sensitive, and therefore represented a Na+-dependent Cl-/HCO3- exchanger (NCBE). In summary, two acid-extruding mechanisms were identified in bovine aortic endothelial cells: NHE and NCBE.     

CO2+O2地浸采铀中CaCO3沉淀堵塞条件模拟

CO2+O2地浸工艺是我国第三代铀矿采冶技术,地浸过程中溶浸液与含矿层矿物反应后,在将铀从矿石中浸出的同时,由于地下水矿化度增高又会产生化学沉淀,导致含矿层堵塞。CaCO3沉淀是CO2+O2地浸采铀过程中含矿层堵塞的重要原因。根据内蒙古纳岭沟铀矿CO2+O2浸铀过程中浸出液化学成分数据,通过水文地球化学模拟,对含矿层堵塞的水文地球化学条件进行了系统研究。结果表明,CaCO3沉淀是造成CO2+O2地浸中含矿层化学堵塞的重要原因。当溶浸液pH>6.5时,CaCO3将发生沉淀,溶浸液的pH、HCO3-浓度、Ca2+浓度是影响CaCO3沉淀的主要因素,过高的pH与HCO3-浓度、Ca2+浓度都会造成CaCO3沉淀的产生。根据模拟结果获得了不产生CaCO3沉淀条件下pH、HCO3-浓度、Ca2+浓度三者之间的关系,并由此认为,维持溶浸液较低的Ca2+浓度与较低的pH是预防与缓解CaCO3沉淀堵塞的有效途径。     

某砂岩铀矿石CO_2+O_2柱浸试验

在实验室开展了某砂岩铀矿石CO_2+O_2浸出工艺的柱浸试验。当液固体积质量比达到5.20(mL/g)时,铀浸出率可达到67.05%;HCO_3~-浓度是影响铀浸出浓度的关键因素,保持HCO_3~-浓度不低于800mg/L时浸铀效果较理想;浸出中后期铀浓度随矿石中铀的消耗而降低;溶浸液与矿石中碳酸钙、黄铁矿相互作用导致浸出液中Ca~(2+)、SO_4~(2-)浓度升高,pH在6.6以上时方解石和白云石都处于过饱和状态,为避免发生沉淀,应将pH控制在6.6以下;试验中石膏虽未达到饱和,但地浸实践中应关注Ca~(2+)、SO_4~(2-)浓度持续升高趋势,避免发生石膏沉淀堵塞。