Mitigation of chloride driven stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of 316L austenitic stainless steel using plasma sprayed TiO2 coating

The present study proposes a protective TiO₂ coating against chloride driven stress corrosion cracking problem of 316L austenitic stainless steel. To test the performance of the proposed coating, the severe chloride-based boiling magnesium chloride solution at 155 °C was chosen. For experimentation, the constant strain-based U-bend specimens were coated with TiO₂ using atmospheric plasma spray method. The results indicated higher resistance by TiO₂ coated specimens against stress corrosion cracking problem, while the bare specimens experienced severe damage in the boiling magnesium chloride solution under various strain loading configurations. The coating-electrolyte system of TiO₂ coated sample demonstrated over seven times higher resistance, eventually led to reduction in corrosion rate over fifteen times compared to the bare 316L stainless steel in the boiling magnesium chloride solution. This improved performance of the coated 316L stainless steel is attributed to inhibition of outward diffusion of iron-chromium-nickel in the corrosive environment and the high chemical stability of TiO₂.     

Analysis of Slide Gate Mounting Bolt Failure in Steel Ladle Due to Fatigue

The mounting bolt failed during slide gate operation of a steel ladle was investigated. Metallurgical analysis confirms the bolt as IS 1367 10.9 grade high-tensile 42CrMo₄ steel. On comparative study with a good un-fractured sample, a striation of fine banded ferrite in pearlite matrix was revealed in failed bolt under optical microscopy. The bolts failed due to fatigue and crack initiated from the surface of machined bolt threads. Comparatively lower hardness, low UTS associated with lower %Cr and %Mo content found to aggravate premature failure of bolts during ladle operation. Microstructure of un-fractured sample found with tempered bainite phase. The fatigue failure of bolts occurred due to repetitive nature of shear force development during steel pouring through slide gate system. Preventive measures to reduce fatigue failure of the mounting bolts are proposed.     

镁合金电偶腐蚀研究及其进展

研究了镁合金AM60与异种金属Q235碳钢、18-8不锈钢、LY12铝合金和纯铝之间的电偶腐蚀,介绍了镁合金电偶腐蚀的最新研究进展,重点探讨了影响镁合金电偶腐蚀的因素和减轻镁合金电偶腐蚀的措施,最后提出了镁合金电偶腐蚀研究中需要解决的科学问题.研究和讨论分析表明,为防止镁合金电偶腐蚀,应全面而系统地进行合理的结构设计、选择合适的匹配材料、在镁合金和异种金属表面分别涂装性能优良的耐碱性涂层体系.由于镁腐蚀发生碱化,所以防止电偶腐蚀的环境应避免选用含铝涂层体系.     

Investigations on core basket bolts from a VVER 440 power plant

Non-destructive examinations using ultrasonic inspections were performed on core basket bolts at a VVER 440 unit. The four M12 bolts, manufactured from solution annealed Ti-stabilized stainless steel, had been replaced due to NDE indications. Destructive investigations were performed on three of these bolts. One bolt had suffered from intergranular stress corrosion cracking, enhanced by irradiation. Irradiation induced grain boundary segregation was observed in the material. The washer of the bolt with cracking had been unintentionally spot welded to the shielding plate, restricting the free movement of the components to adapt to the differences in thermal expansion during e.g. start-up. The stress situation is modeled using finite element computation, and the location and magnitude of high stresses due to spot welding is clearly shown. The reason for the NDE indications in the other bolts were incomplete filling of the flat slot of the bolt head when the bolt was welded to the washer to prevent unscrewing of the bolt during operation.     

Marine Atmospheric SCC of Unsensitized Stainless Steel Rock Climbing Protection

A failure investigation into the root cause of fixed austenitic stainless steel climbing anchor hardware in tropical marine climates has been presented. The incident 316L climbing anchor was fixed in a seaside limestone cliff in southern Thailand and underwent transgranular chloride stress corrosion cracking (TGSCC) after 10 years of service. Since stainless steel does not normally undergo stress corrosion cracking (SCC) at ambient temperatures, the conditions known to promote ambient temperature TGSCC of austenitic stainless steel are reviewed. A mechanism that may give rise to TGSCC in limestone climbing anchors in warm marine environments is postulated.     

Corrosion behaviour of some stainless steel alloys in molten alkali carbonates (I)

In the present work it is aimed to study the corrosion behaviour of two types of stainless steel alloys (one ferritic and two austenitic) in molten Li₂CO₃- Na₂CO₃- K₂CO₃ mixture. This mixture is of interest in corrosion studies because of its low melting point (397°C) and good electrical properties. In this investigation the following techniques of measurements are used: (i) open circuit-potential, (ii) galvanic current, (iii) impedance, (iv) atomic absorption spectroscopy for the determination of the amount of metals dissolved in the melt (v) corrosion tests, carried out on the oxide scales formed during the oxidation of stainless steel alloys in carbonate melt. In this melt the electrode Ag/AgCl was used as a reference electrode. In molten carbonates, the oxide ions originate by self-dissociation according to the equilibrium CO₃ ^2– CO₂ + O^2–. The oxide ions, O^2–, and carbonate ions, CO₃ ^2–, play an important role in the oxidation process of these alloys and their passivation in the carbonate melt. As previously mentioned in references it can be assumed that the oxide scales formed on the alloy surface consist mainly of LiCrO₂ and LiFeO₂. The cathodic path of the corrosion process may be the reduction of CO₂ and/or CO₃ ^2–. The resistance of alloys against corrosion in melt increases with the increase of temperature. This may be due to the increase of concentration of O^2– and CO₂, enhancing both the anodic and cathodic reactions. The activation energy was calculated and found to be 91.496, 23.412 and 37.956 kJ/mol for the alloys 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The above mentioned techniques of measurements showed that the oxide scales of the austenitic stainless steel alloys (2, 3) are more passive and protective than of ferritic stainless steel alloy (1). This means that the resistance against corrosion, in the carbonate melts, of austenitic stainless steel alloys is higher than that of ferritic one.     

Degradation of stainless steel grids in chemically aggressive environment

The present study concerns the failure analysis of a perforated austenitic stainless steel grid, operating in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger of a petrochemical industry. Macroscopic examination of the grid indicated extensive friability and severe cracking in a direction perpendicular to its normal loading, while both grid surfaces as well as the interior of the filtration holes were covered significantly by decayed deposits. Microscopic examination of selected grid areas, after the surface deposits removal, indicated severe cracking exhibiting multiple branching, which advocates for stress corrosion cracking. Besides the extensive cracking areas, voids surrounded by twinning and slip bands were observed. Elemental microanalysis carried out in the areas around voids indicated the presence of iron and chromium at proportions that can be correlated to the formation of σ-phase. The detection of oxygen, iron and chromium within the cracks is attributed to corrosion products consisting of a mixture of iron and chromium oxides. The premature catastrophic failure of the stainless grid occurred as a synergistic effect of these distinct root-causes. Potential substitution of the currently used stainless steel with another alloy of higher resistance in stress corrosion cracking and microstructure stability at high temperatures is suggested.     

Electrochemical polarization and pitting behaviour of Fe-Al-Mn alloys in chloride solutions

The electrochemical polarization behaviour of the austenitic Fe-8.25 Al-29.95 Mn-0.85 C and Fe-9.33 AI-25.94 Mn-1.45 C alloys, either solution-annealed and/or age-treated, was investigated in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. Potentiodynamic polarization tests showed that these alloys passivated with difficulty and had much higher anodic passive current densities than that of the conventional austenitic 316 stainless steel (SS). The susceptibility to pitting corrosion of these alloys under open-circuit potential conditions was also studied in 6% FeCl₃ solution. Metallographical examination indicated that pitting and general corrosion occurred on the specimen surfaces. The corrosion rates of these alloys were about one order of magnitude higher than that of the AlSl 316 SS. In general, the corrosion resistances of the Fe-Al-Mn alloys studied were inferior to that of the conventional stainless steel.[/p]     

A new constitution diagram for predicting ferrite content of stainless steel weld metals

Duplex stainless steels combine the best properties of austenitic and ferritic stainless steels. They possess high yield strengths (=450 N/mm²) and have excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking in severe corrosive environments. The secret of this optimum combination of properties is the balanced austenite-ferrite microstructure of the alloys and the weld metals used to join them. The High Alloys Committee of the US-based Welding Research Council has recently issued a new constitution diagram to assist the prediction of the ferrite content of duplex stainless steel weld metals from the alloy's chemical composition.     

Super austenitic stainless steels — a promising replacement for the currently used type 316L stainless steel as the construction material for flue-gas desulphurization plant

Potentiodynamic anodic cyclic polarization experiments on type 316L stainless steel and 6Mo super austenitic stainless steels were carried out in simulated flue-gas desulphurization (FGD) environment in order to assess the localized corrosion resistance. The pitting corrosion resistance was higher in the case of the super austenitic stainless steel containing 6Mo and a higher amount of nitrogen. The pit-protection potential of these alloys was more noble than the corrosion potential, indicating the higher repassivation tendency of actively growing pits in these alloys. The accelerated leaching study conducted for the above alloys showed that the super austenitic stainless steels have a little tendency for leaching of metal ions such as iron, chromium and nickel at different impressed potentials. This may be due to surface segregation of nitrogen as CrN, which would, in turn, enrich a chromium and molybdenum mixed oxide film and thus impedes the release of metal ions. The present study indicates that the 6Mo super austenitics can be adopted as a promising replacement for the currently used type 316L stainless steel as the construction material for FGD plants.     

Environmentally assisted cracking of a paper machine duplex stainless steel suction roll material

Failure analysis of a paper machine duplex stainless steel suction roll material demonstrated that the mechanism of failure was intergranular stress-corrosion cracking followed by fatigue. Crack initiation was related to both the heat treatment of the alloy and the chloride content developed in the system during paper machine shutdowns. Crack propagation occurred during normal operating conditions by a corrosion fatigue mechanism.     

Failure analysis of submersible pump system collapse caused by assembly bolt crack propagation by stress corrosion cracking

Mechanically fastened joints using bolts are critical components in submersible pump systems. These bolts are subjected to aggressive environments in oil wells. Tightening torque preload and motor's weight are the principal loads that bolts support mechanically plus an occasional pipe flexure. Additionally, a corrosive sulfide-rich water environment presents an extremely demanding chemical condition. A better understanding of those failure mechanisms affecting such components could provide more safety, as well as costs and time saving during the operation of pump systems in wells.An assembly bolt from a submersible pump was fractured during service. Failure was the result of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) originated by pit corrosion. Mechanical and optical tests were performed to identify property changes. SEM with EDS, XRF and OES analyses were used to characterize the material and crack propagation. The fractured bolt material specification was medium carbon steel, while the material specified by the manufacturer was Ni–Cu alloy. The origin of the crack was located on a stress concentration region, but its nucleation was a result of high corrosive conditions.     

高温高酸性环境下镍基合金718与异种金属偶接的电偶腐蚀行为

高温/高压高酸性腐蚀环境中镍基合金718常作为可靠的材料使用,但不可避免会与其他金属偶接使用,易产生电偶腐蚀。模拟150℃,H_2S分压1.0 MPa,CO2分压1.5 MPa,Cl~-浓度200 000 mg/L的高温高酸性腐蚀环境,采用高温高压电化学测试技术和浸泡腐蚀模拟试验,研究了镍基合金718分别与低合金钢35Cr Mo、C110和不锈钢13Cr偶接后的电偶腐蚀行为。结果表明:在模拟高温高酸性环境下,3种金属分别与718合金偶接后,均发生了一定程度的电偶腐蚀,其中C110电偶腐蚀速率最大,而不锈钢13Cr的电偶腐蚀速率最小。电偶腐蚀的驱动力是2种金属的自腐蚀电位差,异种金属偶接后的电偶效应与两偶接材料的电位差成正比,而阳极材料自身的极化特性决定了其与耐蚀合金偶接后的电偶腐蚀程度。     

Intergranular corrosion resistance of nanostructured austenitic stainless steel

Nanostructured metals and alloys possess very high strength but exhibit limited plasticity. Enhancement of the strength/ductility balance is of prime importance to achieve wide industrial applications. However, post-deformation heat treatment, which is usually used to improve plasticity, can lead to a decrease in other properties. In the case of austenitic stainless steels, heat treatment in the range from 480 to 815 °C can increase their susceptibility to intergranular corrosion. The aim of the work reported in this paper was to determine if nanostructured austenitic stainless steel is susceptible to intergranular corrosion if heat treated for 1 h at 700 °C. Samples of 316LVM austenitic stainless steel were hydrostatically extruded, in a multi-step process with the total true strain of 1.84 to produce a uniform microstructure consisting of nanotwins. These nanotwins averaged 21 nm in width and 197 nm in length. Subsequent annealing at 700 °C produced a recrystallised structure of 68-nm-diameter nanograins. The heat treatment improved the ductility from 7.8 to 9.2 % while maintaining the ultimate tensile strength at the high level of 1485 MPa. Corrosion tests were performed in an aqueous solution consisting of 450 ml concentrated HNO₃ and 9 g NaF/dm³ (according to ASTM A262-77a). The evaluation of the corrosion resistance was based on transmission and scanning electron microscopic observation of the microstructure and chemical analyses. The results revealed that both the as-received and HE-processed samples are slightly susceptible to the intergranular corrosion after annealing at 700 °C for 1 h.     

连续重整装置中三通管开裂分析

采用宏观形貌分析、扫描电镜观察、电子探针能谱分析、电极电位测定和电偶电流测定等手段,分析了某石化公司连续重整装置中氢气与石脑油混合的三通管的开裂原因。结果表明:开裂邻近三通管与变径管的焊接焊缝处,导致三通管开裂的主要原因是叠加在气蚀、氯和硫腐蚀基础上的电偶腐蚀;开裂三通管材料为Cr5Mo钢,而焊缝材料为铬镍不锈钢,两者之间的电位差高达60 mV,形成了电偶腐蚀,其中三通管因其电极电位比焊缝的更负,成为电偶对中的阳极而被加速腐蚀,从而使三通管在邻近焊缝处的壁厚不断减薄并最终开裂。     

Hydrogen-assisted stress cracking of high-strength wheel bolts

Early failures occurred with two sizes of wheel bolts used for attaching front wheels and dual rear wheels to heavy truck hubs. Failure resulted in fracture of the bolts, and was a response to the material and process specification which produced a steel microstructure highly susceptible to hydrogen-assisted stress cracking. The microstructure resulted from an alloy steel that was carburized, heat treated, and then zinc plated. This combination of material and processing produced a high-strength SAE Grade 8 bolt (equivalent to an ISO 10.9 grade) with a hard, brittle case and an anodic zinc coating. A slight misalignment of the wheel bolt coupled with a ball seat mounting design for the wheel nuts created a combined axial and bending stress that exceeded the threshold for hydrogen-assisted stress cracking.     

Failure cases related to material issues in wet-process phosphoric acid plant

The present paper describes three failure cases of metallic components handling wet-process phosphoric acid at ambient temperatures in a phosphate fertilizer plant. All the three cases of failure were related not directly to the corrosive environment rather to wrong selection or inferior quality of materials. In the first case, pipeline of stainless steel 316L failed due to inferior quality of material used in the elbow region. The elbow material was not a low carbon grade stainless steel and was also in heavily sensitized condition which led to intergranular corrosion and intergranular cracking. The other two cases were related to failures of pump sleeves made up of cast alloys equivalent to stainless steel 316 and Hastelloy C-276 respectively. SS 316 showed through-wall pitting and cracking while Hastelloy C-276 had undergone extensive corrosion along the interdendritic boundaries. Both the materials contained high carbon content which led to heavy precipitation of carbides (Cr-rich carbides in SS 316 and Mo-rich carbides in C-276) along inter-dendritic boundaries during solidification of the casting reducing their corrosion resistance. Recommendations to avoid such failures are also suggested.     

外压型不锈钢波纹管膨胀节开裂分析

奥氏体不锈钢外压轴向型波纹管膨胀节在使用较短时间后发生了开裂。采用化学成分分析、金相检验和断口分析等方法对开裂的原因进行了分析。结果表明:波纹管膨胀节的工作介质过热蒸汽中含有腐蚀性氯离子,在服役环境下受到拉伸应力的作用,导致其发生了应力腐蚀开裂。     

Cracking analysis on joint lug of aluminum alloy framework of an airplane

An aluminum alloy joint lug of the framework of an airplane was found to have a crack near the bolt hole after serving for a period. To find out the failure mode and cause, macro and micro observation, microstructure examination, EDS analysis, chemical composition analysis and dimensional check were carried out. The results show that the failure mode of the joint lug is stress corrosion cracking under the co-effect of tensile stress and corrosive environment. The cracking of the surface anodic oxidation film near the bolt hole and the exposure of part of the bolt hole inner surface to air are the main causes for the stress corrosion cracking. In addition, the outer diameter of the steel sleeve inside the bolt hole exceeded the design requirement, which resulted in greater tensile stress near the bolt hole and promoted the stress corrosion cracking. The manufacturing procedure should be adjusted to avoid the cracking of anodic oxidation film, the uncovered part of the inner surface of the bolt hole should be covered, and the outer diameter of the steel inside the bolt hole should be controlled properly to meet the design requirement, so that stress corrosion cracking near the bolt hole can be avoided.     

Das Verhalten rostfreier Stahlgußlegierungen unter gleichzeitiger mechanischer und korrosiver Belastung

Behaviour of stainless cast alloys under combined mechanical and corrosive attack In media with 3000 mg B/1 (as boric acid, H₃BO₃) and varying chloride contents down to 1 mg Cl^?/1 13%-Cr-steels show pitting. Under constant load cracks appear simultaneously. As can be expected, 17%-Cr-steels are more resistant and duplex ferritic austenitic steels exhibit no corrosion cracking in 3% NaCl-solution even after 10 000 hrs. Generally, corrosion resistance improves with increasing contents of ferrite forming elements. Corrosion cracks are interpreted in termes of anodic stress corrosion cracking. Notch impact bending tests with hydrogen charged specimens show that deformability is reduced.