试论印制电路板(PCB)散热方案的优化

随着电子技术的飞速发展,电子元器件和设备的单位面积或体积功率密度日益提高,而其带来的发热问题,也是商家和研究者共同关注的焦点.而对印制电路板(PCB)的优化设计,是其中一个较好的散热手段.     

Automated visual inspection of bare printed circuit boards using parallel processor hardware

This paper describes the research currently being conducted at Texas A&M University toward the automated visual inspection of bare printed circuit boards (PCBs) using non-referential algorithms. The first phase of the research includes the development of an efficient algorithm to filter the digitised image of the PCB once it has been received from the camera. The filter enhances the acquired image for easier processing by the system. The research is centred around the use of a commercially available parallel processor to perform this function. The reformatted image is then inspected for defects based on the design rules of the circuit board.     

Electrical test method using high density plasmas for high-end printed circuit boards

A novel electrical test method that uses high-density plasmas, such as inductively coupled discharges, is proposed to detect open/short failures of high-end printed circuit boards (PCBs). The PCB is inserted into the plasma chamber with the top side facing the plasma sheath, and the bottom of the PCB is connected to the probe pin for the dc voltage bias and current measurements. A failure, including a latent open, can be precisely detected by biasing the dc voltage near the plasma potential due to the specific characteristics of the sheath formed on the PCB surface.     

印刷电路板焊点的智能检测

为了提高在线自动光学检测系统(AOI)的自动化程度,提出了一种基于增量聚类的智能焊点检测方法.首先,设计了在线智能AOI的系统框架.然后,根据焊点外观进行归纳分类,将关键子区域的面积特征应用于焊盘特征的量化与提取,将每类样本聚类为若干子类从而实现对多批次焊点的检测.最后,提出一种增量聚类算法,在线检测过程中系统可根据人...     

The component retrieval problem in printed circuit board assembly

Minimization of the makespan of a printed circuit board assembly process is a complex problem. Decisions involved in this problem concern the specification of the order in which components are to be placed on the board and the assignment of component types to the feeder slots of the placement machine. If some component types are assigned to multiple feeder slots, an additional problem emerges: for each placement on the board, one must select the feeder slot from which the required component is to be retrieved. In this paper, we consider this component retrieval problem for placement machines of the Fuji CP type. We explain why simple forward dynamic programming schemes cannot provide a solution to this problem, invalidating the correctness of an algorithm proposed by Bard, Clayton, and Feo (1994). We then present a polynomial algorithm that solves the problem to optimality.The analysis of the component retrieval problem is facilitated by its reformulation as a PERT/CPM problem with design aspects: finding the minimal makespan of the assembly process amounts to identifying a design for which the longest path in the induced PERT/CPM network is shortest. The complexity of this network problem is analyzed, and we prove that the polynomial solvability of the component retrieval problem is caused by the specific structure it inflicts on the arc lengths of the network: in the absence of this structure, the network problem is shown to be NP-hard.     

Embedded components in printed circuit boards: a processing technology review

It is evident that embedded passive components (EPCs) allow packaging substrate miniaturization and have the potential to reduce costs. Moreover, they exhibit superior electrical behaviour with respect to the minimization of parasitic effects. However, as for most emerging technologies, there is no well-established process or method for EPCs that lead to the desired result, but many have been and are still being investigated. This article attempts to review the state of the art of resistor and capacitor EPCs, including an assessment of the pros and cons of the various technologies pursued.In the review, it is found that compared to discrete surface mount devices, EPCs provide (in order of current importance): space reduction of 30% or more, better HF signal integrity and potential cost reduction. Embedded resistors in thin-film technology are, in general, restricted to small resistance values up to a few k. Embedded resistors in ceramic thick-film technology require a high temperature curing process and much care during lamination, but they can be combined with embedded capacitors and exhibit high stability. Whereas embedded resistors in polymer thick-film technology require a low curing temperature and can be combined with capacitors, they exhibit poorer electrical properties and stability. Moreover, tolerances of embedded resistors after manufacturing are exceeded by 15%, independent of the manufacturing technology, which means that laser trimming is required.Embedded capacitors are based mostly on barium-titanite with a dielectric constant of only approximately 20, which limits the capacitance density to a few nF/in². Ferroelectric material with a dielectric constant up to 2000 for embedded capacitors has been investigated but not yet established. Besides the traditional screen print technology for the deposition of pastes and inks, the ink-jet technology becomes more promising. Much higher flexibility with respect to material composition, layer thickness and even active components like LEDs have already been produced by ink-jetting.     

印制电路板电磁辐射等效偶极子建模与预测

提出了一种计算由印刷电路板产生的电磁辐射的新方法.这种方法是从近场扫描推导出的等效偶极子模型,建立了一系列可以产生相同辐射场的无穷小偶极子来代替PCB板.等效偶极子的参数直接由被测近场磁场决定,在封闭环境下仿真,等效的方法被推广应用到电介质平面偶极子模型,通过等效PCB基本物理特征来解决在PCB板和外壳之间的相互作用.通过用数学法求解等效模型来预测电磁辐射,极大的减少了仿真时间,提高了仿真效率.最后,以一块印制电路板为对象,通过对其进行电磁辐射仿真与试验测试,证明了利用本文方法建模与预测的正确性和高效性.     

基于SURF特征的PCB元件匹配研究

通过研究基于印刷线路板(printed circuit board,PCB)中芯片元件的特征,提出了一种利用SURF(speeded up robust features)特征与颜色信息进行PCB元件特征匹配的方法.在对PCB元件特征进行分析的基础上,计算SURF特征描述,并利用融合颜色信息的最近邻法则寻找元件之间的匹配点对,最终给出匹配判决.实验结果表明本方法误判率低、匹配精度高、鲁棒性强,可以用于PCB元件的配准检测中.     

Cryogenic drilling of aluminum-based printed circuit boards: a review and analysis

Abstract

An aluminum-based printed circuit board (Al-PCB) is a composite material comprising a copper layer, an insulating layer, and an aluminum base layer. In the drilling of Al-PCBs, exit burrs are formed because of the plastic deformation of the remnant aluminum under high drilling temperatures. In this work, a new method using cryogenic media is suggested to prevent exit burrs in Al-PCB drilling. The effects of cryogenic media, such as cold air, supercritical carbon dioxide solvent (scCO₂), and liquid nitrogen (LN₂), on the drilling temperature, chip removal, tool wear and exit burr formation were observed and analyzed. The Al-PCB drilling temperature could be effectively reduced when drilling with cold air, scCO₂ or LN₂. The chip removal and tool wear could be improved when drilling with cold air or LN₂. The exit burr formation when drilling with scCO₂ or LN₂ was greater than that when drilling under cooling and cold air conditions. A cold air matching composite wood backup board (MW-0.5) could effectively control the exit burr formation within 20?μm. This is the first study on the effects of three different cryogenic media on PCB drilling and is expected to provide a good reference for the cryogenic drilling of PCBs.     

采用Gerber文档的印刷电路板表观检测

对印刷电路板(PCB)进行表观检测时,传统标准板的图像建立是利用PCB图像自身的特征进行配准和分层的,故检测精度不高.本文从PCB表观检测的实际需求出发,提出了新的检测系统.该检测系统引入解析Gerber文档对PCB光电图像进行分层处理,利用形态学的方法自动修正解析后的Gerber文档,建立精确的标准板.根据主分量分析提取彩色图像频带丰富的信息,依据检测缺陷的尺寸大小设置各层模板及检测阈值,实现局部针对性检测,提高检测精度.实验结果表明,与传统的基于颜色分区域方法相比,基于Gerber的方法不仅提高了检测精度,且较大幅度地提高了自动光学检测系统的检测效率,其微小缺陷检测率高达95.1％,25 cm×22 em电路板检测时间仅需1.09 s,满足了在线检测对速度的要求.     

Web-based distributed manufacturing control systems

With the evolution of the application of web technology, agent-based manufacturing systems can be both easily implemented and become a potential approach for modern manufacturing enterprises. In this paper, we present problems and models required for the development of web-based distributed manufacturing control systems. The specific objectives are: (1) to propose an appropriate architecture for a web-based distributed manufacturing control system, (2) to define the specification of a web-based cell controller, (3) to design the co-operative mechanisms, contract net protocol, for better system performance, (4) to upgrade the communication capability of existing CNC machines from RS232C to TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) based on Ethernet .To demonstrate the proposed development, prototype software based on ASP and VB programming was designed and implemented. As a result, not only is a great amount of time saved in the development of web-based manufacturing control software, but this development can also enhance the competitive capability of companies trying to operate on a flexible basis.     

Function modules demanded for production control in distributed manufacturing system

This paper deals with the function modules demanded for production control in a distributed cellular manufacturing system. Cells are the distributed components of any manufacturing system. A proposed multipassing distributed simulating scheduling system (MPDSSS) deals with the production control functions regarding process planning (working-cell selection), scheduling, rescheduling, and real-time dispatching. The process planning function aims at selecting a good route for each job. The multipassing scheduling aims at providing a scheduling bidding strategy in a distributed fashion. The rescheduling aims at dealing with the large-effort change of the system with updating the precedence schedule to run in a new manufacturing period. The real-time scheduling deals with the small-effort change of the system with a real-time dispatching rule. All the production controlling functions have been implemented in distributed fashions. A simulation experiment demonstrates that the proposed MPDSSS leads to good results in the following criteria: minimum mean flow time, minimum waiting time, maximum machine utilisation, and minimum imbalance of cell utilisation.Nomenclature {A} grouping set ofA _i - A _i function-identical set of celli - BC _i the weighted bidding cost for the operation in celli - {C} performance criteria set - C _i ith element of {C} - CU _{f avg} average cell utilisation inA _f - CU _{f max} maximum cell utilisation inA _f - CU _i average cell utilisation of celli - CU_max maximum CU _i - CU_min minimum CU _i - {D} dispatching rule base - D _i ith rule in {D} - EFT earliest finishing time - EFT_max maximum EFT - ICU _f the imbalance of cell utilisation inA _f - P _m previously actual system performance for criterionC _m - RC _i rescheduling cost when using ruleD _i - SC _i improvement rate for system cost using ruleD _i - SP _a actual system performance - SP _m preceding simulation performance of theC _m with ruleD _i - SP _p ideally predictable system performance - SPD _a actual system performance deviation - TICU _i total imbalance of cell utilisation using ruleD _i - W weighting factor     

A DMAIC approach to printed circuit board quality improvement

Since the early 1990s, six sigma has been sweeping the business world, driving greater manufacturing and service quality than has ever been seen before. Statistical quality techniques are one of the decisive factors contributing to the success of the six-sigma implementation. Applying statistical quality techniques is especially important in the manufacture of surface-mounted printed circuit boards (PCB). As any defect in the solder joint can lead to circuit failure, the screening process is regarded as the most critical process in PCB manufacturing. According to the current process capability study of a PCB company, the capability of the screening process is under 1.33—the company requirement. That is to say, the current printing process cannot reach a four-sigma level. Therefore, the objective of this study is to improve the sigma level of the screening process through the define-measure-analyse-improve-control (DMAIC) approach. At the early stages, process capability analysis (PCA) and statistical process control (SPC) were used to measure and analyse the current printing performance of the screening machines. During later stages, design of experiment (DOE) was conducted to determine the optimal settings of the critical-to-quality factors in the screening process. By using these optimal settings, six-sigma performance can be achieved.     

An environmental assessment model applied to printed circuit board manufacturing

Environmental consciousness in manufacturing is becoming increasingly important, due to market pressure and government regulations. As a result, there is an immediate need to develop a model which can effectively assess the impacts of pollution in manufacturing. In this paper, an environmental assessment model is developed based on the combining of the “interval method” with the network analytic method and fuzzy set theory. By applying fuzzy set theory and using on-site-measured pollution data, this model allows uncertain, interactive and dynamic information to be incorporated into the environmental impact assessment. The applicability of this model is demonstrated by a printed circuit board (PCB) manufacturing case. It is concluded that this model is a simple, pragmatic and effective tool for analysing the relative impacts of waste emissions and evaluating the environmental performance of manufacturing processes.     

Distributed optimal coordination control for nonlinear multi-agent systems using event-triggered adaptive dynamic programming method

This paper is concerned with the design of distributed optimal coordination control for nonlinear multi-agent systems (NMASs) based on event-triggered adaptive dynamic programming (ETADP) method. The method is firstly introduced to design the distributed coordination controllers for NMASs, which not only avoids the transmission of redundant data compared with traditional time-triggered adaptive dynamic programming (TTADP) strategy and minimizes the performance function of each agent. The event-triggered conditions are proposed based on Lyapunov functional method, which is deduced by guaranteeing the stability of NMASs. Then a new adaptive policy iteration algorithm is presented to obtain the online solutions of the Hamiton–Jocabi–Bellman (HJB) equations. In order to implement the proposed ETADP method, the fuzzy hyperbolic model based critic neural networks (NN) are utilized to approximate the value functions and help calculate the control policies. In critic NNs, the NN weight estimations are updated at the event-triggered instants leading to aperiodic weight tuning laws so that computation cost is reduced. It is proved that the weight estimation errors and the local neighborhood coordination errors is uniformly ultimately bounded (UUB). Finally, two simulation examples are provided to show the effectiveness of the proposed ETADP method.     

Distributed model reference adaptive containment control of heterogeneous uncertain multi-agent systems

In this paper, a distributed model reference adaptive control (MRAC) design framework is proposed for containment control of heterogeneous uncertain multi-agent systems (MAS). Both groups of leaders and followers are considered to have general linear dynamics with the leaders subject to bounded external inputs and the followers subject to uncertain system dynamics. Two distributed adaptive control protocols are developed under this framework. The first protocol assumes measurable leaders’ input signals for a subset of the followers, and employs distributed observers with state-feedback adaptive controllers to achieve exact containment control performance. The second protocol incorporates robust adaptive control with nonlinear compensator techniques to handle a more challenging scenario of unmeasurable bounded leaders’ inputs. Convergence of the containment control errors to an arbitrarily adjustable neighborhood of the origin is guaranteed with the second protocol. The proposed MRAC framework provides a promising alternative solution over the prevailing cooperative output regulation framework for heterogeneous linear MAS containment control. It enables us to handle more general system settings under more stringent control environments with limited accessibility of leaders’ information and uncertain follower dynamics. Effectiveness and usefulness of the proposed approaches are demonstrated through extensive simulation studies, including an application to containment control of multiple nonholonomic mobile robots.     

一种基于混沌优化算法的PCB板元件检测方法

先进电子制造生产中经常要对PCB板元件进行检测与识别,介绍了一种基于图像模板匹配算法的PCB板元件自动快速检测方法.从检测速度和准确度出发,首先提出了一种图像相似性度量参数指标,并提出一种利用并行混沌算法融合单纯形的算法,来优化搜索图像相似性,给出了算法实现的全过程.用实际拍摄的PCB板元件进行性能测试,验证了该优化算法能提高检测速度.     

锥束CT图像中的印刷电路板导线自动检测方法

针对印刷电路板(PCB)的CT图像存在灰度不均匀、导线形状多变等特点导致的导线难以有效检测的问题,提出了一种基于超像素分割的PCB导线自动检测方法。该方法使用基于引导滤波的类顶帽变换对图像预处理,提高不同类别区域的类间差异,改善后续的超像素分割结果;然后选择graph-based超像素分割算法对导线定位;最后,采用导线几何形状、灰度分布等特征判断识别导线区域,实现导线检测。对存在灰度不均匀、多条导线、多尺度的PCB CT图像进行了实际实验。结果显示:该算法取得了较好的导线检测结果,在实验测试图像上检测率达到了90%以上,基本满足导线自动检测对精度和抗干扰能力的要求,具有较高的应用价值。     

An experiment in distributed manufacturing control

Local area networks are used in industrial control applications that require the digital interconnection of low-level devices such as transducers, actuators and simple controllers. It is possible to use such interconnections solely as a wiring alternative to the traditional star-connected computer controllers and to leave the control of the application with one ‘central’ computer. However, using a local area network to connect intelligent low-level devices opens up the possibility of applying a distributed control methodology to the application. This paper describes the application of a distributed control approach to a work cell previously based around a single, large programmable logic controller. Comparisons of the two approaches are made in an attempt to quantify the effect of this new approach on the metrics of the work cell.     

Distributed control architecture for real-time model predictive control for system-level harmonic mitigation in power systems

It can be challenging to design and implement Model Predictive Control (MPC) schemes in systems with fast dynamics. As MPCs often introduce high computational loads, it can be hard to assure real-time properties required by the dynamic system. An understanding of the system’s behavior, to exploit system properties that can benefit real-time implementation is imperative. Moreover, MPC implementations on embedded local devices rarely allows flexibility to changes in model and control philosophy, due to increased complexity and computational loads. A change in control philosophy (run-time) can be quite relevant in power systems that can change from an integrated to a segregated state. This paper proposes a distributed control hierarchy with a real-time MPC implementation, designed as a higher-level control unit, to feed a lower-level control device with references. The higher-level control unit’s objective in this paper is to generate the control reference of an Active Power Filter for system-level harmonic mitigation. In particular, a novel system architecture, which incorporates the higher-level MPC control and handles distribution of control action to low-level controllers, as well as receiving measurements used by the MPC, is proposed to obtain the application’s real-time properties and control flexibility. The higher-level MPC control, which is designed as a distributed control node, can be swapped with another controller (or control philosophy) if the control objective or the dynamic system changes. A standard optimization framework and standard software and hardware technology is used, and the MPC is designed on the basis of repetitive and distributed control, which allows the use of relatively low control update rate. A simulator architecture is implemented with the aim of mimicking a Hardware-In-Loop (HIL) simulator test to evaluate the application’s real-time properties, as well as the application’s resource usage. The results demonstrates that the implementation of the harmonic mitigation application exhibits the real-time requirements of the application with acceptable resource usage.