Describing and facilitating effective supervision behavior in counseling trainees.

Counseling trainees often do not receive formal assistance in assuming the role of supervisee. What constitutes effective trainee behavior within the context of supervision, as opposed to the clinical context, also has received little empirical attention. A national sample of 176 participants (145 supervisees, 31 supervisors) affiliated with counseling psychology or counseling center internship programs rated the importance of 52 behaviors/characteristics (Supervision Utilization Rating Form; SURF) to the effective use of supervision at specific developmental training levels. Supervisors and supervisees applied ratings from important to extremely important to all items. Statistically significant differences between supervisor and supervisee ratings were noted on 6 items. The development of the SURF and its potential uses in supervisee role induction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of counselor supervision: An examination of Stoltenberg's model from the perspectives of supervisor and supervisee.

We used Stoltenberg's (1981) developmental model of counselor supervision in an examination of relational consequences of supervisors' and supervisees' disagreements about a supervisee's counseling sophistication. We also sought support for Stoltenberg's proposed optimal supervision environments. Eighty-seven supervisors and 77 supervisees from 31 randomly selected university counseling and clinical psychology programs around the United States categorized supervisees as belonging to one of four developmental levels. They also provided demographic information, estimated supervisory behavior frequencies, and made satisfaction and impact ratings. Results indicated that (a) supervisors perceived themselves as varying their behavior with supervisees of different developmental levels in a manner that accorded with Stoltenberg's model, (b) supervisees did not perceive the differences reported in supervisors' behaviors, and (c) supervisees reported significantly less satisfaction and impact when they were in mismatched pairs with supervisors, although supervisors did not. In subsequent analyses, we found that supervisees preferred supervision that was characterized by a collegial relation with a focus on trainee personal development and self-understanding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The voices of registered play therapists as supervisors.

This study examined the background, perceived training needs, and issues of Registered Play Therapist Supervisors (n = 305) and their supervisees. Supervisors completed a four-part survey regarding demographics, supervisor and supervisee issues, and perceptions of training needs for supervisors of play therapists. Important findings are the lack of training in and possible understanding of clinical supervision, the lack of perceived need for supervision of supervision, and the absence of countertransference as an important issue for supervisors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group supervision of paraprofessional counselors.

Group supervision of paraprofessional counselors was investigated at a short-term residential facility for emotionally disturbed children and adolescents. Four counseling teams' group supervision meetings were studied over a 45-day period. A behavior observation system was used to collect data about problem solving and member participation at these meetings. A questionnaire was designed to measure supervisees' satisfaction with and perceptions of their group supervision. Group supervision meetings tended to be highly task oriented: 69% of the comments at the meetings pertained to resolving the children's and adolescents' emotional problems. Supervisors participated at a marginally higher frequency (51%) than did supervisees (47%). Overall, supervisees tended to be satisfied with and have positive perceptions of their group supervision experiences. However, experienced supervisors' group supervision meetings received higher ratings of supervisee satisfaction than did novice supervisors' meetings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative supervisory events: Effects on supervision and supervisory alliance.

What are the consequences when a supervisee experiences a negative event in supervision? Supervisee developmental level, supervisory working alliance, trainee attachment style, and negative supervisory events were examined to determine their relationship with one another. Findings underscore the destructive impact negative supervisory events can have on supervision and supervisee development. This impact varies depending upon a supervisee's developmental level or the strength of the supervisor--supervisee working alliance. Supervisors are encouraged to be more supportive of supervisees in early development, and suggestions are offered on ways to ensure a strong supervisory relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhancing training and practice in the context of poverty.

While the importance of multicultural competence among practitioners and clinical supervisors has been explored in the psychological literature, these examinations give little attention to issues of social class and poverty. The author suggests five interrelated areas for supervisory action to enhance supervisee competence in the context of poverty. Supervisors may (a) provide supplemental curricula on social class, (b) help supervisees explore class privilege, (c) process supervisees’ reactions to poverty, (d) apply social justice tenets in supervision, and (e) teach flexible approaches to interventions. These suggestions are framed within the field’s growing emphasis on competencies and its larger service commitments to people living in poverty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychoanalytic supervision and the need to be alone.

Argues that just as infants not left alone (in the marginal presence of their mothers) will not find their true selves, but will develop false selves with conformative tendencies (D. W. Winnicott, 1965), supervisees not left to discover their professional selves in the marginal presence of their supervisors will not develop true professional selves. A false self will then emerge in the place of an authentically experiencing one. This false self will conform to the perceived needs and demands of supervisors, teachers, and various clinical tests. Supervisors must balance the welfare of the patient with the professional developmental needs of the supervisee. A case study is presented as illustrative. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hindering phenomena in group supervision: Implications for practice.

Although group supervision is practiced extensively, research on the subject remains scant. This study identified group supervision phenomena that hinder learning. Counseling and counseling psychology graduate students identified 61 group supervision experiences that they felt interfered with their learning. Then, 14 of the 49 original participants sorted the 61 phenomena on the basis of similarity. Hierarchical cluster analysis was used to identify 5 types of hindering phenomena: between-member problems, problems with supervisors, supervisee anxiety and other perceived negative affects, logistical constraints, and poor group time management. Implications for supervisors, supervisees, and training programs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical issues in supervision.

Suggests the need for a review of current ethical standards regarding supervision of psychotherapists and presents alternative approaches to the supervisor–supervisee relationship. Group or vertical supervision (with peers and senior personnel) may reduce supervisee anxiety and provide more opportunities for objective support. Sharing supervisees may encourage supervisors to compare supervisory problems. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of supervisor and supervisee degree level and gender on the supervisory relationship.

86 graduate counseling students and 92 supervisors rated their relationships 3 times during a semester. At the semester's end, supervisees decribed the perceived frequency of performance of supervisor behaviors. Supervisors and supervisees differed in their perceptions of the relationship and how it developed. Supervisees, in contrast to supervisors, saw improvement in their relationships over time. Male supervisees and supervisors both rated their relationships as better than females. Gender matching affected supervisees' perceptions of their relationships but not supervisors' perceptions. Semester-end ratings showed that supervisees discriminated between the quality of the relationship, which was affected by gender matching, supervisor gender, and supervisor behavior, and supervisor competence, which was affected only by supervisor behavior. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervisor Perspective on the Process and Outcome of Giving Easy, Difficult, or No Feedback to Supervisees.

Fifteen counseling center supervisors were interviewed about 3 instances related to important feedback with an intern supervisee: 1 in which the feedback was given easily, 1 in which it was given reluctantly or with difficulty, and another in which it was not given. Supervisors indicated that easy feedback was most often about clinical problems, was given directly, had positive effects, and was facilitated by supervisee openness. Difficult feedback was most often about clinical, personal, and professional issues, was given indirectly, had mixed impact, and was characterized by a lack of supervisee openness. Feedback not given was typically about personal and professional concerns and was hindered by a lack of supervisee openness. Supervisors indicated that there were negative effects of not having given the feedback and indicated that they would do it differently if they could. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Microaggressions by supervisors of color.

Supervisors of color are not only targets of discrimination but also perpretators. The denial of supervisees’ identities reveals a lack of respect and empathy, creating significant barriers to a good supervisory relationship. An area of professional development for supervisors of color is understanding the diverse identities of our supervisees, who are increasingly multiethnic and transnational. Supervisors of color also need the opportunity to examine their experiences of microaggressions both as sender and receiver and reflect on their own identities and how they impede or enhance the quality of supervision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effective supervision as perceived by beginning counselors-in-training.

16 supervisors of beginning practicum counselors rated the importance to good supervision of 42 supervisor behaviors. At the end of their 1st semester of training, 31 beginning practicum counselors rated the frequency with which their supervisors actually performed each of the 42 supervisor behaviors. The counselors also rated the effectiveness of supervision on 3 dimensions: satisfaction with supervision, supervisor competence, and contribution of supervision to improved counselor ability. In general, supervisors perceived supervision as primarily providing feedback to supervisees. Beginning counselors rated their supervision as good, however, if (a) a personal and pleasant supervisor–supervisee relationship existed; (b) supervisors provided relatively structured supervision sessions, especially during early sessions; and (c) supervisors directly taught beginning counselors how to counsel (i.e., by using literature, and by didactic instruction) and then encouraged the new counselors to try out their new skills. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in supervision as counselors and supervisors gain experience: A review.

Reviews research bearing on whether and how counselors and supervisors receive or give different types of supervision of psychotherapy as they each gain experience. Most theories describing changes in supervision of counselors as they gain experience are similar. They posit changes in the supervisee, with supervision environments being matched to the changing needs of the supervisee. There are 3 theories concerning how the supervisor changes as he/she gains experience. Empirical findings are consistent with theories of counselor development but only weakly supportive of the theory that actual supervision environments are matched to supervisee needs. Empirical findings on changes in supervisors as they gain experience reveal few differences in supervisors at any level beyond the master's degree. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervisory theory into practice: Differential perception of supervision by Ekstein, Ellis, Polster, and Rogers.

58 experienced supervisors (median age 35.1 yrs) evaluated videotaped supervision sessions conducted by either Rudolph Ekstein, Albert Ellis, Erving Polster, or Carl Rogers, who had all supervised the same therapist, based on the same work sample. The 4 supervisors, originators or major interpreters of their theoretical models, were perceived as differing in attractiveness and in their use of the critic, model, and nurturing roles identified by B. Apfelbaum (1958); they also were perceived as differing in the extent to which they functioned as counselor and as teacher and in the extent to which their work focused on the supervisee's technical skills, on his/her use of his/her personal reactions and feelings, and on case conceptualization. These differences generally were consistent with theory. Raters did not perceive the supervisee or client differentially across supervision sessions, although the supervisee was perceived to be differentially satisfied with supervision. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical supervision practices of licensed psychologists.

Surveyed 232 licensed psychologists from 1 midwestern state to assess the nature of clinical supervision for experienced practitioners. Data were collected concerning type, frequency, and content of supervision; supervisor goals, techniques, assessment methods, and roles; and most and least helpful aspects of supervision. There were few significant differences in supervision as a function of supervisee experience, gender, or degree (MA vs PhD), or supervisor gender. The supervisees generally appeared to have autonomous relationships with supervisors who were clinically skilled and highly supportive. Ethical concerns regarding supervisee informed consent, supervisor accountability, and gender-role stereotyping are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of supervisor and supervisee theoretical orientation and supervisor-supervisee matching on interns' perceptions of supervision.

Effects of supervisor and supervisee theoretical orientation on supervisees' perceptions of supervisors' models, roles, and foci were studied, as were variables influencing quality of supervision and supervisee autonomy. 84 interns from 32 nationwide training sites were surveyed. Cognitive-behavioral supervisors were perceived to be in a consultant role and to focus on skills and strategies more than were humanistic, psychodynamic, and existential supervisors, who were perceived more as using the relationship model, playing the therapist role, and focusing on conceptualization. Supervisors were not perceived to differ in their use of growth and skill development models, teacher role, and focus on the supervisee. Women were perceived as more effective supervisors than were men. Perceived effectiveness was predicted by theoretical match and similarity. Supervisee autonomy was predicted by theoretical similarity, low supervisor adherence to theory, and unmatched gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

“Those who learn have a responsibility to teach”: Black therapists' experiences supervising Black therapist trainees.

This phenomenological study examined how 12 Black psychotherapists in college counseling centers around the country experienced the supervision of Black therapist trainees. Participants described how their relationships and methods of supervision differed when working in same-race dyads. They reported feeling closer to their Black supervisees in ways that often felt familial. The therapists described serving as mentors for their Black supervisees. They also reported discussing race more frequently in supervision, and they perceived that their Black supervisees felt safer having Black supervisors. The study also suggests implications for the training of ethnic minority therapists and supervisors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Postdisaster supervisor strategies for promoting supervisee self-care: Lessons learned from Hurricane Katrina.

The purpose of this article is to provide supervisors with postdisaster strategies for promoting supervisee self-care. These recommendations are based on relevant disaster mental health and supervision research along with the authors' experiences of supervising and teaching in a university setting following Hurricane Katrina in South Mississippi. Supervisory examples from the authors' hurricane experiences are also provided to highlight each recommendation. A supervisee self-care tool is offered to aid supervisors in their efforts to help supervisees develop positive coping responses in the event of a disaster. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

White Racial Identity Dyadic Interactions in Supervision: Implications for Supervisees' Multicultural Counseling Competence.

Examining supervisory dyads consisting of a White supervisor and a White supervisee, the authors sought to determine the effects of similarities and differences in levels of supervisor and supervisee racial identity schemas or attitudes on White supervisees' self-reported multicultural counseling competence and multicultural case conceptualization ability. White supervisees in supervision dyads characterized by more advanced White racial identity schemas reported higher self-perceived multicultural counseling competence and obtained higher multicultural case conceptualization ratings than did their counterparts in supervision dyads characterized by lower White racial identity schemas. Implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)