Effects of gender on the counselor's preference for methods of influence.

Hypothesized that gender would be related to the counselor's preference for using legitimate, expert, and referent methods of influence. 32 male and 20 female practicing university counselors were asked to estimate the utility of responses reflecting each of the 3 methods of influence in facilitating behavioral change in either a male or a female depressed client. Preferences for the legitimate response varied according to S's gender, whereas preferences for the expert response varied according to the gender of both S and client. No significant differences were found in preferences for the referent response. Results are interpreted in terms of the effects that sex role stereotypes had on maximizing S power and minimizing client resistance. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bases of supervisory power and subordinate job satisfactions.

Related 5 bases of supervisory power (coercive, expert, legitimate, referent, and reward), proposed by J. R. French and B. Raven, to 5 areas of subordinate satisfaction: (a) company, (b) job, (c) supervision, (d) climate for growth in performance reviews, and (e) climate for growth in day-to-day interactions with supervisor. Ss were 323 employees of a large public utility company who answered a questionnaire survey. Expert power was the most common, followed by legitimate, coercive, referent, and reward. Generally, referent and expert powers were associated with greatest satisfaction; legitimate power was intermediate; reward and coercive powers were associated with least satisfaction. The 2 clear-cut reversals were meaningful when the unique aspects of satisfaction were considered. Also, the most (and least) effective bases of power were perceived as being used together. Comparison with other published research reveals few population differences in prevalence of various types of power. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselors' feelings toward clients as related to intake judgments and outcome variables.

Investigated the relationship of the feelings of intake counselors to other judgments that they made as well as to clients' ratings of their counseling experience. Ss were 332 female and 175 male clients of a university counseling center. Results show that intake counselors' liking of clients was related to their rating of the realism of clients' goals, clients' motivation for counseling, and clients' physical appearance. Sex differences are discussed. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Female counselor–client dyads: Effects of counselor age, client marital status, and intimacy level of presenting problem on perceptions of counselors.

Explored the impact of counselor age, level of intimacy of clients' presenting problems, and client marital status on perception of counselors and the counseling relationship with 48 married females (mean age 21.9 yrs) and 48 unmarried females (mean age 26.3 yrs). Ss viewed a series of 3 videotapes, which were counterbalanced for level of intimacy of client's presenting problems and depicted initial interviews between young female clients and either younger or older female counselors. After viewing each individual vignette, Ss completed a counselor rating form, a client satisfaction form, and manipulation checks for presenting problem intimacy and counselor age. Overall, differences in presenting problems and counselor age were perceived as intended. Ss' marital status was unrelated to any measures. Counselors were judged as most expert, attractive, and trustworthy when dealing with presenting problems that were least intimate. Ss anticipated greater satisfaction with younger rather than older counselors only for the least intimate presenting problem. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigation of social influence theory's conception of client resistance.

Expert and referent power bases and influence attempts were crossed with levels of trustworthiness to explore the effects of perceived counselor illegitimacy and power base influence attempt incongruence in a counseling analog. 134 undergraduates viewed 1 of 8 videotaped simulated counseling interviews. Each completed the Counselor Rating Form, a recall test, and 2 behavioral intention checklists. Behavioral compliance with the counselor's suggestions was also determined. Data offer support for the social influence theory: Ss' expectations of others' instrumental behavior were lower for those who viewed illegitimate counselors. Ss' expectations for their own behavior were greater after referent influence attempts. Ss' expectations for both others' and their own behavior were lower for those who viewed legitimate counselors whose power base and influence attempt were incongruent than for those who viewed legitimate couselors using congruent attempts. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of expert and referent influence, physical attractiveness, and gender on perceptions of counselor attributes.

Investigated the predictions of social influence theory with respect to Ss' perceptions of counselors' professional and personal attributes and Ss' evaluations of the counselors. Expert and referent power bases and influence attempts were crossed with levels of counselor physical attractiveness together with S and counselor gender in a counseling analog. 64 male and 64 female undergraduates viewed 1 of 8 videotaped simulated counseling interviews and completed rating forms assessing their perceptions and evaluations. Analyses supported social influence theory in that (a) expert conditions produced higher ratings of professional attributes than did referent conditions, (b) referent conditions produced higher ratings of personal attributes than did expert conditions, (c) congruent conditions (power base and influence attempt) produced higher ratings than did incongruent conditions on all measures, and (d) physical attractiveness mediated the effects of congruence for personal but not for professional attributes. No gender differences were present. Implications for the social influence process are discussed. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor power base, influence attempt, and behavior change in counseling.

Gave a 30-min individual interview to 48 college males, all of whom described themselves as "procrastinators." The interview explored current and historical difficulties stemming from Ss' procrastination, and ended with an interviewer attempt to influence Ss to take some specific action on the procrastination issue of greatest current concern. 8 experimental conditions were defined by (a) the 2 interviews, (b) "expert" or "referent" roles, and (c) delivery of influence attempt in a manner congruent with the "expert" or "referent" power base. Results show that (a) Ss perceived interviewers as intended, (b) Ss were induced to perform important behaviors outside the interview situation, (c) the expert and referent power bases were not differentially effective in inducing S compliance, and (d) the frequency of differential conformity in the power-congruent vs power-incongruent conditions approached statistical significance. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Afro-American preferences for counselor characteristics.

Examined 128 Black college students' (aged 17–52 yrs) preferences for salient counselor characteristics. Ss were asked to express their preference for counselors similar or dissimilar to them across 8 counselor characteristics (ethnicity, sex, religion, educational background, socioeconomic background, attitudes and values, personality, and age) identified from previous research. A total of 120 paired comparisons were generated to compare preferences for the 16 similar and dissimilar counselor characteristics. Results reveal that Ss expressed preferences for counselors who, in comparison to themselves, were more educated, had similar attitudes and values, were older, and had similar personalities; these characteristics were more important to the Ss than the counselor's race and ethnicity. Additional analysis of within-group preference profiles revealed no consistent difference by commitment to Afro-American culture, sex, or previous counseling experience. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal influence process in real-life counseling: Investigating client perceptions, counselor experience level, and counselor power over time.

Examined the interpersonal influence process within an actual counseling context over an average of 8 sessions. Counselors were either beginning or advanced practicum students or doctoral interns (n?=?27); clients were 31 students who sought counseling at a university center. Before and after counseling Ss completed the Counselor Rating Form, the Expectations about Counseling measure, and the Counselor Perceptions Questionnaire. Results indicate that (a) the actual counselor experience level did not affect client perceptions of the counselor; (b) perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness changed over time, but not in the same direction across counselors; (c) different levels of client need did not affect clients' perceptions of counselor characteristics; and (d) counselors rated as highly attractive indicated they had more therapeutic power over clients than counselors rated as moderately attractive. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client preference and expectancy upon the initial interview.

Used a 2 * 3 design with 10 Ss per cell to show how initial counseling interview process and outcome are affected by (a) assigning clients to either more preferred or less preferred counselors; (b) giving clients either positive, nonexistent, or negative expectancy inductions regarding their counselor assignments; and (c) congruence and incongruence between clients' expectations and experiences. Process and outcome were assessed using client and counselor self-report measures and audiotape segment ratings. More preferred assignment conditions received more favorable tape ratings than did less preferred assignment conditions. Positive or no-expectancy conditions revealed a more favorable counseling outcome than did negative expectancy conditions. Most Ss showed increased preferences for counselors seen despite congruence or incongruence between their expectations and experiences. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client preferences and anticipations in career counseling: A preliminary investigation.

Client expectations have been studied infrequently in career counseling. This study provides preliminary data about precounseling expectations, which were conceptualized as preferences and anticipations. 92 university students (22 men and 70 women) who sought career counseling completed an open-ended questionnaire. Results suggested the following conclusions: (1) Clients have fairly clear ideas about what they want (preferences) from career counseling and about what the experience should be like; (2) clients are somewhat less certain about what the career counseling experience will actually be like (anticipations) and less optimistic about it; (3) a number of mismatches exist between clients' preferences and anticipations; (4) clients do not have well-developed expectations about their dislikes in career counseling; and (5) few differences are evident between clients who have had previous counseling and those who have not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive strategies and the client conceptualization process.

Used perspectives from cognitive psychology to (1) examine the manner in which 27 doctoral-level counseling psychology students formulated conceptualizations of a client and (2) describe cognitive strategies employed to accommodate additional information about, and observations of, the client over time. Ss read a brief paragraph about and viewed a 5-min videotape of a client being interviewed. Ss then answered questions about the foci for counseling this client and the questions they would ask. Convergent or divergent conceptual strategies were identified and were found to be associated significantly with Ss' amount of previous counseling experience and with the extent of their formal training. Ss with more experience showed greater early convergence. Ss' confidence in their conceptualizations was related significantly to gender and to amount of exposure to the client. Females were consistently more confident than males. Findings are discussed in terms of cognitive capabilities and of students' self-perceptions and expectations. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor race and power base: Effects on attitudes and behavior.

Assessed the effects of expert and referent power bases and counselor race on Ss' attitude and behavior change. 32 White undergraduates who identified themselves as having procrastination and career-planning problems were divided into internal or external groups on the basis of their scores on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. Four female interviewers, 2 Black and 2 White, portrayed either an expert or referent role and attempted to influence Ss to use a problem-solving process and perform a career-planning activity. Dependent variables included a measure of attitude change, a measure assessing knowledge of the problem-solving process, and 2 behavioral measures. Results show that (a) the roles were perceived as intended, (b) Ss of expert interviewers recalled more of the problem-solving process, and (c) significant interactions of race and role were obtained such that Black-expert and White-referent interviewers were most influential both in attitude and behavior change. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations of SARS-related stressors and coping to Chinese college students' psychological adjustment during the 2003 Beijing SARS epidemic.

This study examined the main and interactive relations of stressors and coping related to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) with Chinese college students' psychological adjustment (psychological symptoms, perceived general health, and life satisfaction) during the 2003 Beijing SARS epidemic. All the constructs were assessed by self-report in an anonymous survey during the final period of the outbreak. Results showed that the relations of stressors and coping to psychological adjustment varied by domain of adjustment. Regression analyses suggested that the number of stressors and use of avoidant coping strategies positively predicted psychological symptoms. Active coping positively predicted life satisfaction when controlling for stressors. Moreover, all types of coping served as a buffer against the negative impact of stressors on perceived general health. These findings hold implications for university counseling services during times of acute, large-scale stressors. In particular, effective screening procedures should be developed to identify students who experience a large number of stressors and thus are at high risk for developing mental health problems. Intervention efforts that target coping should be adapted to take account of the uncontrollability of stressors and clients' cultural preferences for certain coping strategies. A multidimensional battery of psychological adjustment should be used to monitor clients' psychological adjustment to stressors and evaluate the efficacy of intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preferences for counselor gender: Students' sex role, other characteristics, and type of problem.

102 female and 67 male students (aged 17–74 yrs) from a large urban university rated their preferences for counselor gender for 9 client concerns and completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and a demographic questionnaire. Most Ss who expressed a preference for counselor gender preferred male counselors over female ones for all concerns other than problems with sexual issues. Preferences for male counselors were expressed more often, however, for vocational/academic and social/interpersonal concerns than for personal/intimate problems. Discriminant analyses revealed profiles of Ss who preferred male counselors or had no preference. Variables such as S sex-role, age, and race were found to be particularly useful in predicting gender preferences. Results are interpreted in terms of S. L. Bem's (see record 1981-25685-001) gender-schema theory. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of treatment rationale and problem severity on perceptions of psychological problems and counseling approaches.

Examined the effects of different treatment rationales and problem severity on 240 undergraduates' attitudes concerning various counseling approaches, psychological problems, and counselor characteristics. Ss were exposed to 1 of 4 different rationale conditions (psychoanalytic, behavioral, rational emotive, or a no-rationale control) described for the treatment of psychological problems (snake phobia, test anxiety, depression, or schizophrenia), which varied in severity; Ss then completed ratings on a number of measures. Results reveal that although attitudes concerning the different treatment rationales did not vary as a function of problem severity, exposure to a rationale enhanced rated willingness to enter counseling and promoted a more accurate perception of the nature of psychological problems and the requirements of treatment. Findings are discussed in terms of the importance of assessing clients' initial attitudes regarding treatment and providing precounseling information promoting accurate and positive expectations. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of counselor conceptual level to clinical hypothesis formation.

37 counseling students completed the Paragraph Completion Method, a measure of conceptual level (CL). All Ss then viewed a videotape of a client in a counseling session and completed the Clinical Assessment Questionnaire, which is designed to assess counselors' hypotheses about a client's problem. Questionnaire responses were scored on 7 categories relevant to clinical judgment and information processing. Two factors were considered in a multiple regression analysis—CL and clinical experience. Results indicate that experience level was not significantly related to the characteristics of the students' clinical hypothesis formation. CL was significantly related to the overall quality and clarity of expression in clinical hypotheses and the number of divergent questions asked about the client's problems. Methodological and counselor-training implications are discussed. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor gender and gender-role orientation on client career choice traditionality.

The purpose of this study was to test common assumptions about the effects of counselors' gender and gender-role orientation on clients' career choice traditionality. A sample of 240 career counseling clients (120 women and 120 men) were counseled by a male or female counselor, who were further classified as possessing a masculine, feminine, or androgynous gender-role orientation as determined by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. The clients' career choice traditionality was measured on three occasions: during the counseling sessions, at the conclusion of counseling, and with respect to clients' actual career choices 6 months after completion of the counseling process. Results showed that counselor gender and gender-role orientation had no effects on any of the three measures of client career choice traditionality. Client gender emerged as the only significant determinant of client career choice traditionality. We discuss the implications of these findings for counseling research and practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client self-terminations after one counseling session: Effects of problem recognition, counselor gender, and counselor experience.

From a pool of 758 clients seen individually by 1 of 34 counselors at a large university counseling center, 533 clients were identified as having self-terminated from counseling after their initial session or as having continued in counseling for at least 3 sessions. The authors investigated potential relationships between continuation in counseling and the variables of counselor experience, counselor gender, and counselor recognition of clients' problem definitions. As predicted, the results of logit analyses indicated that clients were more likely to self-terminate after 1 session when problem recognition was absent. This relationship was more pronounced for experienced counselors than it was for trainees, suggesting a possible explanation for the lack of a direct relationship between counselor experience and continuation in counseling in recent studies. Female counselors had higher rates of early premature terminations than male counselors. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)