Heat transfer model for gas–liquid slug flows under constant flux

This paper investigates the mechanisms leading to enhanced heat and/or mass transfer rates in two-phase non-boiling slug flows. The problem is analyzed in a minichannel geometry subjected to a constant heat flux boundary. Local Nusselt numbers, obtained using Infrared thermography are analyzed in both entrance and fully developed flow regions. These novel measurements highlight the physics governing slug-flow heat transfer and results indicate that optimized slug geometries can yield up to an order of magnitude heat transfer enhancement. Finally, based on the physics identified, a heat transfer model is developed which is also applicable to similar mass transfer problems.     

Physical modelling and advanced simulations of gas–liquid two-phase jet flows in atomization and sprays

This review attempts to summarize the physical models and advanced methods used in computational studies of gas–liquid two-phase jet flows encountered in atomization and spray processes. In traditional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) based on Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) approach, physical modelling of atomization and sprays is an essential part of the two-phase flow computation. In more advanced CFD such as direct numerical simulation (DNS) and large-eddy simulation (LES), physical modelling of atomization and sprays is still inevitable. For multiphase flows, there is no model-free DNS since the interactions between different phases need to be modelled. DNS of multiphase flows based on the one-fluid formalism coupled with interface tracking algorithms seems to be a promising way forward, due to the advantageous lower costs compared with a multi-fluid approach. In LES of gas–liquid two-phase jet flows, subgrid-scale (SGS) models for complex multiphase flows are very immature. There is a lack of well-established SGS models to account for the interactions between the different phases. In this paper, physical modelling of atomization and sprays in the context of CFD is reviewed with modelling assumptions and limitations discussed. In addition, numerical methods used in advanced CFD of atomization and sprays are discussed, including high-order numerical schemes. Other relevant issues of modelling and simulation of atomization and sprays such as nozzle internal flow, dense spray, and multiscale modelling are also briefly reviewed.     

Three-dimensional measurement of gas dissolution process in gas–liquid microchannel flow

The three-dimensional CO₂ dissolution process through a gas–liquid interface in microfluidic devices was investigated experimentally, for the precise control of CO₂ dissolution. The gas dissolution was evaluated by using confocal micron-resolution particle image velocimetry (micro-PIV) combined with laser induced fluorescence (LIF), which has the ability to measure the velocity and dissolved CO₂ concentration distribution in a liquid flow field. The measurement system is based on the confocal microscope, which has excellent depth resolution and enables visualization of the three-dimensional distributions of velocity and dissolved CO₂ concentration by rendering two-dimensional data. The device is comprised of a polydimethylsiloxane chip, whose microchannels were fabricated by using a cryogenic micromachining system. The width and depth of the liquid flow channel are larger than those of the gas flow channel. This is due to the need for decreasing the width of the gas–liquid interface and increasing the hydraulic diameter of the liquid channel, whose conditions generate a static gas–liquid interface. The experiments were performed for three different liquid flow conditions corresponding to Reynolds numbers of 1.0 × 10^?2, 1.2 × 10^?2 and 1.7 × 10^?2, and the gas flow rate was set to be constant at 150 μL/min. The LIF measurements indicate that an increase in the Reynolds number yields a decrease in dissolved gas in the spanwise directions. Furthermore, molar fluxes by convection and diffusion were evaluated from the experimental data. The molar fluxes in the streamwise direction were at least 20 times as large as those in the spanwise and depthwise directions. This reveals that an increase in momentum transport in the spanwise and depthwise directions is an important factor for enhancing mass transfer in the gas–liquid microchannel flow.     

Analysis of mixed convection—Radiation interaction in a vertical channel: Entropy generation

This work examines analytically the effects of radiation heat transfer on mixed convection through a vertical channel in the presence of transverse magnetic field. Both First and Second Laws of thermodynamics are applied to analyze the problem. Special focus is given on the entropy generation characteristics and its dependency on the various dimensionless parameters, i.e. Hartmann number (Ha), Plank number (Pl), Richardson number (Ri), group parameter (Br/Π) etc. A steady-laminar flow of an incompressible-viscous fluid is assumed through the channel with negligible inertia effect. Fluid is further considered as an optically thin gas and electrically conducting. Governing equations in Cartesian coordinate are solved analytically after reasonable simplifications. Expressions for velocity, temperature, local, and average entropy generation rate are derived and presented graphically.     

Thermal stochastic collision model in turbulent gas–solid pipe flows

New thermal stochastic particle collision model in gas–solid flow in a riser is developed. The simulation is based on four-way coupling of phases considering inter-particle collision and heat transfer. It is shown that the limitation of excessive computational time in Eulerian–Lagrangian simulation of gas–solid flows for the high loading ratios is eliminated by using the stochastic particle collision model. The simulation results demonstrate that the predictions of the developed thermal stochastic particle collision modem are in good agreement with those obtained by the direct particle collision model and the available experimental data. The new stochastic modeling is used and nearly dense gas–solid flow is simulated for high loading ratios up to eight and the results are presented and discussed.     

Prandtl and capillary effects on heat transfer performance within laminar liquid–gas slug flows

This paper investigates a two-phase non-boiling slug flow regime for the purposes of enhancing heat transfer in microchannel heat sinks or compact heat exchangers. The primary focus is upon understanding the mechanisms leading to enhanced heat transfer and the effect of using different Prandtl number fluids, leading to variations in Capillary number. Experimental work was conducted using Infrared thermography and results are presented in the form of Graetz solution, spanning both the thermal entrance and fully developed flow regions. Nusselt numbers enhancements were observed throughout when data was reduced to account for void fraction. However, the gaseous void was also noted to demonstrate an artificial increase with greater thicknesses of the liquid film, due to higher Capillary numbers. Up to 600% enhancement in heat transfer rates were observed over conventional Poiseuille flow. This was verified through Nusselt number measurements over inverse Graetz number ranges from 10^?4 to 1 and slug length to channel diameter ratios from 0.88 to 32. Varying Prandtl and Capillary numbers caused notable effects in the transition region between entrance and fully developed flows. Significant Nu oscillations were observed for low Pr fluids due to internal circulation within the slug. However, these oscillations are observed to be damped out when higher Prandtl number fluids are employed. The thickness of the liquid film surrounding the gas bubbles is shown to have a significant influence on heat transfer performance. Overall, this study provides a greater understanding of the mechanisms leading to significant enhancements in heat exchange devices employing two-phase gas–liquid flows without boiling.     

Heat transfer of gas–liquid mixture in micro-channel heat sink

The main objective of the present investigation is to study heat transfer in parallel micro-channels of 0.1 mm in size. Comparison of the results of this study to the ones obtained for two-phase flow in “conventional” size channels provides information on the complex phenomena associated with heat transfer in micro-channel heat sinks. Two-phase flow in parallel micro-channels, feeding from a common manifold shows that different flow patterns occur simultaneously in the different micro-channels: liquid alone (or single-phase flow), bubbly flow, slug flow, and annular flow (gas core with a thin liquid film, and a gas core with a thick liquid film). Although the gas core may occupy almost the entire cross-section of the triangular channel, making the side walls partially dry, the liquid phase always remained continuous due to the liquid, which is drawn into the triangular corners by surface tension. With increasing superficial gas velocity, a gas core with a thin liquid film is observed. The visual observation showed that as the air velocity increased, the liquid droplets entrained in the gas core disappeared such that the flow became annular. The probability of appearance of different flow patterns should be taken into account for developing flow pattern maps. The dependence of the Nusselt number, on liquid and gas Reynolds numbers, based on liquid and gas superficial velocity, respectively, was determined in the range of Re_LS = 4–56 and Re_GS = 4.7–270. It was shown that an increase in the superficial liquid velocity involves an increase in heat transfer (Nu_L). This effect is reduced with increasing superficial gas velocity, in contrast to the results reported on two-phase heat transfer in “conventional size” channels.     

Flow and heat transfer in a micro-cylindrical gas–liquid Couette flow

Analytic solutions for the gas and liquid velocity and temperature distribution are determined for steady state one-dimensional microchannel cylindrical Couette flow between a shaft and a concentric cylinder. The solution is based on the continuum model and takes into consideration the velocity slip and temperature jump in the gaseous phase defined by the Knudsen number range of 0.001 < Kn < 0.1. The two fluids are assumed immiscible. The gas layer is adjacent to the shaft which rotates with angular velocity ω_s and is thermally insulated. The outer cylinder rotates with angular velocity ω_o and is maintained at uniform temperature. The governing parameters are identified and the effects of the Knudsen number and accommodation coefficients on the velocity and temperature profiles, reduction in the overall temperature rise due to the gas layer, the Nusselt number and shear reduction are examined. It was found that the required torque to rotate the liquid in the annular space is significantly reduced by introducing a thin gas layer adjacent to the shaft. Also, reduction in shaft temperature is enhanced through a combination of high energy accommodation coefficient and low momentum accommodation coefficients. Results also indicate that the gas layer becomes more effective in reducing the shaft temperature when the housing angular velocity is much larger than the shaft angular velocity.     

VOF modelling of gas–liquid flow in PEM water electrolysis cell micro-channels

In this study, the gas–liquid flow through an interdigitated anode flow field of a PEM water electrolysis cell (PEMEC) is analysed using a three-dimensional, transient, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. To account for two-phase flow, the volume of fluid (VOF) method in ANSYS Fluent 17.2 is used. The modelled geometry consists of the anode channels and the anode transport layer (ATL). To reduce the complexity of the phenomena governing PEMEC operation, the dependence upon electro-chemistry is disregarded. Instead, a fixed source of the gas is applied at the interface between the ATL and the catalyst layer. An important phenomenon that the model is able to capture is the gas–liquid contact angle on both the channel wall and ATL-channel interface. Particularly, the latter interface is crucial in capturing bubble entrainment into the channel. To validate the numerical simulation, photos taken of the gas–liquid flow in a transparent micro-channel, are qualitative compared against the simulation results. The experimental observations confirm the models prediction of long Taylor bubbles with small bubbles in between. From the simulation results, further intriguing details of the flow are revealed. From the bottom to the top of the outgoing channel, the film thickness gradually increases from zero to 200 μm. This increase in the film thickness is due to the particular superficial velocity field that develops in an interdigitated flow. Here both the superficial velocities change along the length of the channel. The model is capable of revealing effect of different bubble shapes/lengths in the outgoing channel. Shape and the sequence of the bubbles affect the water flow distribution in the ATL. The model presented in this work is the first step in the development of a comprehensive CFD model that comprises multiphase flow in porous media and micro-channel, electro-chemistry in catalyst layers, ion transport in membrane, hydrogen evolution, etc. The model can aid in the study of gas–liquid flow and its impact on the performance of a PEMEC.     

Direct numerical simulation of interphase heat and mass transfer in multicomponent vapour–liquid flows

A Volume-of-Fluid methodology for direct numerical simulation of interface dynamics and simultaneous interphase heat and mass transfer in systems with multiple chemical species is presented. This approach is broadly applicable to many industrially important applications, where coupled interphase heat and mass transfer occurs, including distillation. Volume-of-Fluid interface tracking allows investigation of systems with arbitrarily complex interface dynamics. Further, the present method incorporates the full interface species and energy jump conditions for vapour–liquid interphase heat and mass transfer, thus, making it applicable to systems with multiple phase changing species. The model was validated using the ethanol–water system for the cases of wetted-wall vapour–liquid contacting and vapour flow over a smooth, stationary liquid. Good agreement was observed between empirical correlations, experimental data and numerical predictions for vapour and liquid phase mass transfer coefficients. Direct numerical simulation of interphase heat and mass transfer offers the clear advantage of providing detailed information about local heat and mass transfer rates. This local information can be used to develop accurate heat and mass transfer models that may be integrated into large scale process simulation tools and used for equipment design and optimization.     

Determinants of global natural gas consumption and import–export flows

Based on the data of the BP Statistical Review of World Energy, this paper constructs the consumption and import–export of natural gas identities. It discusses the drivers of changes in global natural gas consumption and trade flows from 2008 to 2015 using the extended logarithmic mean Divisia index. The results show that differences in the natural gas supply and demand across countries or regions, as well as the distribution of energy between the domestic and international markets, can be better explained when natural gas trade movements are considered. By comparing the supply and consumption increment of natural gas, this study finds that only the energy intensity, economic growth, and demographic effects are consistent with each other. The changes in the impact of other effects mainly depend on storage variations and statistical errors. In addition, the primary drivers of the incremental changes in natural gas consumption vary in different countries. They include production scale, import scale, export scale, consumption structure proportion, energy intensity, economic growth, and population and balance effects. Finally, the consumption competitiveness of the liquefied natural gas significantly improved over the examined period.     

Experimental investigation of opposing mixed convection hear transfer in the vertical flat channel in a laminar–turbulent transition region

In this paper we present the results on experimental investigation of the local opposing mixed convection heat transfer in the vertical flat channel with symmetrical heating in a laminar–turbulent transition region. The experiments were performed in airflow (p = 0.1–1.0 MPa) in the range of Re from 1.5 × 10³ to 6.6 × 10⁴ and Gr_q up to 1 × 10¹¹ at the limiting condition q_w1 = q_w2 = const. The analysis of the results revealed significant increase in the heat transfer with increasing of air pressure (Gr number). Also sharp increase in heat transfer was noticed in the region with vortex flow in comparison with the turbulent flow region.     

The processes of dissolution and hydrate forming behind the shock wave in the gas–liquid medium with gas mixture bubbles

The processes of dissolution and hydrate forming behind the front of the shock wave, propagating in liquid with bubbles of carbon dioxide and nitrogen mixture, have been experimentally studied under various initial pressures, medium temperatures and surfactant concentrations in water. The theoretical model of this process is presented for the gas–liquid medium with bubbles of multicomponent gas mixture with consideration of accompanying heat effects. Numerical solutions to this problem were found. Close fit of calculation results and experimental data was achieved. Experimental data on profiles of gas content, times of dissolution and hydrate forming were generalized on the basis of the suggested model.     

Measurement of transient heat transfer in vicinity of gas–liquid interface using high-speed phase-shifting interferometer

The heat transfer process and initial stage of coupled convection at a gas–liquid interface are observed with high temporal and spatial resolutions in view of understanding phase transition dynamics such as evaporation or condensation for energy technologies. A high-speed phase-shifting interferometer is used to precisely measure the transient heat conduction and convection processes near the gas–liquid interface of a small water droplet. In the present study, the transient heat conduction around a water droplet interface during the adiabatic expansion process before the appearance of convection is visualized and examined. In the visualization experiment, transient density variations due to heat conduction in the vicinity of the gas–liquid interface are observed with temporal and spatial resolutions of 1 ms and 8.83 μm/pixel, respectively. It is determined that convection appears at approximately t = 0.25 s in a fast depressurization process, while transitions in both temperature and pressure are observed. In addition, the transient density variations and distributions of the gas phase before convection are compared with numerical simulations as an optical path length difference, and there is good agreement between the simulations and experimental results. The measurement methods developed in this study can be applied in the measurement of interfacial heat and mass transfers with high temporal and spatial resolutions.     

Nitrogen oxides reduction by liquid petroleum gas over Co–Ce–Ti catalysts in a simulated rotary reactor

Hydrocarbons could be used as the reductant for elimination of NO_x emissions. Liquid petroleum gas, with higher carbon hydrocarbons and cheaper costs, may be of practical value as reducing agents. Due to the consumption of hydrocarbons by oxygen, the NO_x reduction efficiency is significantly inhibited by oxygen in the flue gas. In this research, a novel rotary reactor, realizing the alternating cycle of adsorption zone and reduction zone, was proposed to overcome this negative effect. Co–Ce–Ti mixed oxide catalysts synthesized by a sol–gel method were tested in a simulated rotary reactor for NO_x removal by liquid petroleum gas and characterized by SEM, BET, XRD and XPS. The results showed that catalysts exhibited better NO conversion efficiency at higher temperature but were highly susceptible to oxygen. Catalysts achieved nearly full removal of NO_x from flue gas at 300 °C in a simulated rotary reactor, and 300 °C is considered to be the most optimum temperature with lower energy consumption and excellent flue gas purification performance.     

Experimental study on desulfurization efficiency and gas–liquid mass transfer in a new liquid-screen desulfurization system

This paper presents a new liquid-screen gas–liquid two-phase flow pattern with discarded carbide slag as the liquid sorbent of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) in a wet flue gas desulfurization (WFGD) system. On the basis of experimental data, the correlations of the desulfurization efficiency with flue gas flow rate, slurry flow rate, pH value of slurry and liquid–gas ratio were investigated. A non-dimensional empirical model was developed which correlates the mass transfer coefficient with the liquid Reynolds number, gas Reynolds number and liquid–gas ratio (L/G) based on the available experimental data. The kinetic reaction between the SO₂ and the carbide slag depends on the pressure distribution in this desulfurizing tower, gas liquid flow field, flue gas component, pH value of slurry and liquid–gas ratio mainly. The transient gas–liquid mass transfer involving with chemical reaction was quantified by measuring the inlet and outlet SO₂ concentrations of flue gas as well as the characteristics of the liquid-screen two-phase flow. The mass transfer model provides a necessary quantitative understanding of the hydration kinetics of sulfur dioxide in the liquid-screen flue gas desulfurization system using discarded carbide slag which is essential for the practical application.     

Continuous liquid–vapor phase transition in microspace

Molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo methods are adopted to predict thermodynamic parameters of small argon systems. Simulation results of isotherms are similar to the van der Waals loop in the P–V diagram, which implies the continuity between the liquid and gas states. Both simulation and experiment of argon system indicate that the density variation inside the liquid–vapor interface is gradual and the interface may become considerably thick as the saturation temperature is close to the critical point. The temperature in the interface region is not uniform and higher than the saturation temperature, which is another example of the continuous phase transition between liquid and vapor.     

Transition from natural to mixed convection for steam–gas flow condensing along a vertical plate

An analysis method based on two-phase boundary layer analysis has been developed to study the effects of superimposed forced convection on natural convection steam–gas flow condensing along a vertical plate. The mechanism by which superimposed forced convection enhances heat transfer is evaluated: the bulk flow blows away non-condensable gases accumulating near the interface, resulting in an elevated condensation driving force. Further, this bulk flow blowing capability may be characterized by a conventional mass transfer driving potential. Results of the new model are shown to be consistent with experimental data. Finally, a simple criterion was developed to identify transition to mixed convection from natural convection steam–gas flow.     

Shock waves in multiphase flow of fuel–coolant interaction

The interaction of fuel and coolant (FCI) is a complex multiphase process due to the fact that the fragmentation and heat transfer process are not easy to cast in simple mathematical formulas. This paper, a theoretical model has been developed by considering multiphase flow shock wave propagating of fuel–coolant interaction. Analysis of a steady-state vapour explosion in one dimension has been carried out by applying the conservation laws of mass, momentum, energy and the appropriate equation of state for an interaction of molten dioxide uranium and water. Using the model, we predicted the pressure magnitudes behind shock wave of vapour explosion varied with the initial volume fraction of vapour, melt mass concentrations, liquid entrained fraction and when they were considered as dangerous.