On the tradeoff between altruism and selfishness in MANET trust management

Mobile ad hoc and sensor networks may consist of a mixture of nodes, some of which may be considered selfish due to a lack of cooperativeness in providing network services such as forwarding packets. In the literature, existing trust management protocols for mobile ad hoc networks advocate isolating selfish nodes as soon as they are detected. Further, altruistic behaviors are encouraged with incentive mechanisms. In this paper, we propose and analyze a trust management protocol for group communication systems where selfish nodes exist and system survivability is highly critical to mission execution. Rather than always encouraging altruistic behaviors, we consider the tradeoff between a node’s individual welfare (e.g., saving energy to prolong the node lifetime) vs. global welfare (e.g., achieving a given mission with sufficient service availability) and identify the best design condition of this behavior model to balance selfish vs. altruistic behaviors. With the system lifetime and the mission success probability as our trust-based reliability metric, we show that our behavior model that exploits the tradeoff between selfishness vs. altruism outperforms one that only encourages altruistic behaviors.     

A Game Theoretical Approach for Topology Control in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks with Selfish Nodes

In ad hoc networks, a significant amount of energy available to devices is utilized in network management operations. Since devices have limited energy resources, therefore, they drop data packets of other nodes to reduce their energy consumption. This selfish behaviour increases number of retransmissions over the link which increases energy consumption of the source node, introduces time delays, and degrades throughput of the network. Although conventional distributed topology control solutions minimize energy utilization of the nodes by adjustment of transmission power, however, selfish behaviour by devices introduce additional complexity in design which make topology control a challenging task. In this paper, we proposed Energy Efficient Topology Control Algorithm (EETCA) using game theoretical approach, in which, utility of the node depends on selfishness of the neighbors, link traffic rate, and link length. In decision-making step, nodes remove the links with other nodes that have high drop rate under the condition that network remains connected. We show that Nash Equilibrium point of the proposed game results in Pareto optimal network topology. We compare results of EETCA with Optimum (OPT) and Minimum Least Power Path Tree (MLPT) algorithms presented in literature. We carried our simulations under multiple sources scenario which show that EETCA outperforms previous approaches when number of nodes in the network increases. Furthermore, we simulate the performance of Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol under EETCA topology and compare it with MLPT and OPT topologies. The results show that the ad hoc network constructed using proposed solution substantially improves throughput of AODV routing protocol as compared to MLPT and OPT topology control algorithms.     

OMH—Suppressing Selfish Behavior in Ad hoc Networks with One More Hop

In ad hoc networks, wireless nodes rely on each other to transmit data over multi-hops by forwarding packets. A selfish node may decide not to forward packets for other nodes to save its own resource but still use the network to send and receive data. Such a selfish behavior can degrade network performance significantly. Most existing work took observation, reputation and token based mechanisms. However observation based mechanism suffers from mobility and collusion; reputation and token based mechanisms suffer from system complexity and efficiency. In this paper, we propose One More Hop (OMH) protocol which suppresses selfish behavior from a totally new angle. Basing on the fact that the selfish but rational nodes still want to receive and send packets, if a node can not determine whether a packet is destined for it or not, it can not drop the packet. With modified routing protocol and cryptographic techniques, OMH achieves this design target. It is robust and efficient. The simulation shows that OMH works well under different network situations.     

Survey of Secure Routing Protocols for Wireless Ad Hoc Networks

The mobile ad hoc network is a type of wireless network characterized by mobile nodes without a centralized administration. Frequent variations of the topology and the nature of the radio links have a negative impact on the stability of the links. Indeed, the link quality deteriorates rapidly and link breaks become frequent. To overcome these problems, new forms of routing protocols are used as the MultiPath routing. In addition, routing protocols require the knowledge of the nodes neighborhood to build and manage routes. The neighbor discovery process is performed by a Hello protocol. The Hello protocol typically involves several parameters such as the packet’s period; node’s transmit power, node’s position and node’s battery level. The purpose of this paper is to change the behavior of ad hoc On demand Multi-path Distance Vector (AOMDV) routing protocol by considering the density of the nodes as well as the interference of the neighboring nodes. This selection of paths goes through two stages. In the first step, we study the impact of the neighbor discovery process to select a set of paths having a minimum number of neighboring nodes to diminish contention problems and interference rate. In the second step, the Interference Ratio (IR) metric is used to select the paths in which the nodes are surrounded by a minimum of interference. We choose for our study two proposed approaches based on AOMDV routing protocol. The first is called AOMDV_neighbor and considers the density parameter as a path metric. The second is called AOMDV_neighbor_IR which considers the interference rate (IR) between each node and its neighborhood as a path metric. We evaluate the proposed routing protocols performance under various NS2 simulation scenarios in a shadowing environment.

     

基于信誉值维护的机会网络自私节点检测机制

机会网络中自私节点的存在严重影响路由转发的性能。为在路由时避开此类节点、消除其对网络性能的影响,提出了一种基于信誉值维护的自私节点检测机制,通过两跳ACK消息来监测节点行为,利用监测信息计算节点的信誉值,并将其作为判断节点是否自私的依据。在多种路由算法上加载该检测机制进行仿真实验,结果表明该检测机制可准确识别机会网络中的自私节点,提高消息投递的成功率,并能有效控制消息副本数和网络开销。     

Low-cost routing in selfish and rational wireless ad hoc networks

Numerous routing protocols have been proposed for wireless networks. A common assumption made by the majority of these protocols is that each wireless node will follow the prescribed protocol without any deviation. This may not be true in practice since wireless nodes could be owned by users who perform in their own interests. We then have to design routing protocols that still work properly even for networks composed of selfish nodes. In this paper, we propose a unicast routing protocol to address this issue under the assumption that all networking nodes are rational. Here, a node is rational if it always chooses a strategy that maximizes its benefit. We assume that each node has a privately known cost of relaying a unit of data for other nodes. In our protocol, each wireless node has to declare a cost for forwarding a unit of data. When a node wants to send data to the access point, it first computes the least cost path to the access point and then computes a payment to each node on this path. We present a pricing mechanism such that the profit of each relay node is maximized when it declares its true cost. We also give a time optimal method to compute the payment in a centralized manner. We then discuss in detail how to implement the routing protocol in the distributed manner. We conduct extensive simulations to study the ratio of the total payment over the total cost incurred by all relay nodes. We find that this ratio is small in practice. Our protocol works when the wireless nodes will not collude and we show that no truthful mechanism can avoid the collusion of any pair of two nodes. We also give a truthful mechanism when a node only colludes with its neighbors.     

感知无线电自私网络低开销诚实能效路由

在感知无线电自私ad hoc网络环境下提出一种低代销的诚实能效路由(Lowest Cost Path,LCP),将路由的开销结合对主用户的干扰和节点剩余能量,利用格罗夫斯-克拉克-威科瑞(Vickrey-Clark-Groves,VCG)定价机制给LCP上每个中继节点以一定报酬促使节点之间的合作,并证明VCG机制下节点真实的反映自身的类型是一个占优策略。仿真结果表明,该路由算法有效实现了感知无线电自私ad hoc网络的诚实能效路由,与现有最短路径路由协议比较,该协议具有更好的性能。     

The COMMIT Protocol for Truthful and Cost-Efficient Routing in Ad Hoc Networks with Selfish Nodes

We consider the problem of establishing a route and sending packets between a source/destination pair in ad hoc networks composed of rational selfish nodes whose purpose is to maximize their own utility. In order to motivate nodes to follow the protocol specification, we use side payments that are made to the forwarding nodes. Our goal is to design a fully distributed algorithm such that (1) a node is always better off participating in the protocol execution (individual rationality), (2) a node is always better off behaving according to the protocol specification (truthfulness), (3) messages are routed along the most energy-efficient (least cost) path, and (4) the message complexity is reasonably low. We introduce the COMMIT protocol for individually rational, truthful, and energy-efficient routing in ad hoc networks. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first ad hoc routing protocol with these features. COMMIT is based on the VCG payment scheme in conjunction with a novel game-theoretic technique to achieve truthfulness for the sender node. By means of simulation, we show that the inevitable economic inefficiency is small. As an aside, our work demonstrates the advantage of using a cross-layer approach to solving problems: Leveraging the existence of an underlying topology control protocol, we are able to simplify the design and analysis of our routing protocol and reduce its message complexity. On the other hand, our investigation of the routing problem in the presence of selfish nodes disclosed a new metric under which topology control protocols can be evaluated: the cost of cooperation.     

无线Mesh网络可信路由协议THWMP研究

为了使节点在网络中存在恶意节点和自私节点时能够选择安全可靠的路由,降低恶意节点和自私节点对无线Mesh网络带来的影响,文中通过对无线Mesh网络混合路由协议HWMP(Hybrid Wireless Mesh Protocol)和信任模型的研究,提出了基于主观逻辑信任模型的无线Mesh网络可信路由协议THWMP(Trusted HWMP),大大降低了因为信任的传递带来的网络开销,同时保证了路由的可信度。与HWMP路由协议相比较,在网络中存在恶意节点时,THWMP路由协议能够在增加有限的额外开销的情况下保证全网有较高的数据传递成功率和吞吐量。     

机会网络中自私行为影响的分析与调节

以往针对机会网络中节点自私性影响评估的研究,建立了多种分析模型,然而并未考虑如何应用这些理论模型.本文分别在网络无TTL限制和有TTL限制两种情况下,利用评估模型对自私节点的影响进行分析,并提出一种基于消息分类的自私模型,评估了自私节点对延迟和消息投递率的影响.分析表明,机会网络受自私节点的影响不仅与自私节点的数目有关,而且与节点的移动速度,消息传输范围有关.因此,可以通过调节这些参数提高网络的性能,减少自私节点的影响.首先,通过理论推导分别得出了2-hop路由和传染病路由在延迟保证下的合作节点数目和消息传输范围以及传染病路由在消息投递率保证下消息的TTL.随后,通过ONE仿真平台对自私节点影响的评估,证明自私行为影响下网络性能的理论值与实验值近似,并且证明了通过理论分析获得的参数值也与实验值近似.     

An incentive energy-efficient routing for data gathering in wireless cooperative networks

Because of energy-constraint, it is an attractive problem to select energy-efficient paths from source nodes to sink for data gathering in wireless ad hoc networks. Cooperative communication is a promising mechanism to reduce transmit energy in such kind of case. One of the fundamental assumptions for cooperative communication is that each node should be unselfish, responsible, and willing to forwarding data he has received. However, in energy-constrained environment, because of limited energy, each node hates participating in data transmission without any incentive and tries to avoid forwarding data (this behavior is selfish). In this paper, a utility function is proposed to stimulate nodes to behave unselfishly. We prove that it is a Nash Equilibrium when nodes work in an unselfish manner. Also, we show that the selection of forwarding nodes and relay nodes for data transmission is a NP-hard problem even when nodes behave unselfishly. A heuristic algorithm (Algorithm for Node Selection Problem, ANSP) is provided to solve this selection problem. We also prove the convergence of this algorithm. The analysis shows that this algorithm can reach the approximate performance ratio of 2?(1+α), where α is the maximal ratio of two power consumptions on two adjacent links in the network. The numerical results show that in a 100 node network, if nodes behave unselfishly, they will obtain a better utility, and more energy will be saved. The average saved energy when each node takes a selfish behavior, is 52.5% less than the average when nodes behave in an unselfish manner.     

Dynamic Relationship-Zone Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc Networks

A new dynamic relationship-zone routing protocol (DRZRP) for ad hoc networks is proposed. In this protocol, each node in the network establishes a neighboring-zone with a radius of ρ hops, and activates a relationship-zone according to the service request frequency and service hotspot condition. DRZRP establishes proactive routing for neighboring-zone and relationship-zone of the node, and the relationship-zone of the node can be dynamically maintained, including: initialization, relationship-zone activation, and relationship-zone inactivation. The simulation results are compared with LSR, ZRP and ZHLS protocols, and DRZRP greatly reduces the communication overhead of routing control messages and significantly improves the average delay of routing requests. The new protocol matches the service relationship among nodes in the network, and has comprehensive performance advantage in communication overhead and routing request delay, which improves the quality of network service.

     

Sparsely‐deployed relay node assisted routing algorithm for vehicular ad hoc networks

In this paper, we study the issue of routing in a vehicular ad hoc network with the assistance of sparsely deployed auxiliary relay nodes at some road intersections in a city. In such a network, vehicles keep moving, and relay nodes are static. The purpose of introducing auxiliary relay nodes is to reduce the end‐to‐end packet delivery delay. We propose a sparsely deployed relay node assisted routing (SRR) algorithm, which differs from existing routing protocols on how routing decisions are made at road intersections where static relay nodes are available such that relay nodes can temporarily buffer a data packet if the packet is expected to meet a vehicle leading to a better route with high probability in certain time than the current vehicles. We further calculate the joint probability for such a case to happen on the basis of the local vehicle traffic distribution and also the turning probability at an intersection. The detailed procedure of the protocol is presented. The SRR protocol is easy to implement and requires little extra routing information. Simulation results show that SRR can achieve high performance in terms of end‐to‐end packet delivery latency and delivery ratio when compared with existing protocols. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Agent-based trusted on-demand routing protocol for mobile ad-hoc networks

The routing performance in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) relies on the co-operation of the individual nodes that constitute the network. The existence of misbehaving nodes may paralyze the routing operation in MANETs. To overcome this behavior, the trustworthiness of the network nodes should be considered in the route selection process combined with the hop count. The trustworthiness is achieved by measuring the trust value for each node in the network. In this paper, a new protocol based on self monitoring (agent-based) and following the dynamic source routing (DSR) algorithm is presented. This protocol is called agent-based trusted dynamic source routing protocol for MANETs. The objective of this protocol is to manage trust information locally with minimal overhead in terms of extra messages and time delay. This objective is achieved through installing in each participated node in the network a multi-agent system (MAS). MAS consists of two types of agents: monitoring agent and routing agent. A new mathematical and more realistic objective model for measuring the trust value is introduced. This model is weighted by both number and size of routed packets to reflect the “selective forwarding” behavior of a node. The performance evaluation via simulation shows that our protocol is better than standard and trusted DSR. The simulation is done over a variety of environmental conditions such as number of malicious nodes, host density and movement rates.     

EOMR: An Energy-Efficient Optimal Multi-path Routing Protocol to Improve QoS in Wireless Sensor Network for IoT Applications

The wireless sensor network based IoT applications mainly suffers from end to end delay, loss of packets during transmission, reduced lifetime of sensor nodes due to loss of energy. To address these challenges, we need to design an efficient routing protocol that not only improves the network performance but also enhances the Quality of Service. In this paper, we design an energy-efficient routing protocol for wireless sensor network based IoT application having unfairness in the network with high traffic load. The proposed protocol considers three-factor to select the optimal path, i.e., lifetime, reliability, and the traffic intensity at the next-hop node. Rigorous simulation has been performed using NS-2. Also, the performance of the proposed protocol is compared with other contemporary protocols. The results show that the proposed protocol performs better concerning energy saving, packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and network lifetime compared to other protocols.

     

An optimized trusted‐cluster–based routing in disruption‐tolerant network using experiential learning model

Disruption‐tolerant network (DTN) implementation is subject to many routing constraints like limited knowledge of the network and intermittent connections with no end‐to‐end path existence. In this paper, the researchers propose trusted‐cluster–based routing protocol (TCR) for routing in DTN. TCR uses the experiential learning model that integrates neural network‐based bipolar sigmoid activation function to form trusted‐cluster DTN. TCR works in two phases: firstly to form a trusted‐cluster and secondly to identify cluster heads to direct network traffic through them. After the formation of the trusted‐cluster, a cluster head is chosen for a set period, thus instigating stability in the network. These trust values are attached to the node's route cache to make competitive routing decisions by relaying a message to the other trusted intermediate nodes only. With negative trust value, any node is deprived of participation in the network. This way, TCR eliminates malicious or selfish nodes to participate in the DTN network and minimizes the number of messages forwarded in a densely populated DTN. Also, this implementation conserves sufficient buffer memory to reach the destined node. The TCR's performance with other DTN routing schemes, namely, epidemic and trust‐based routing, is compared using multiple simulations runs. The proposed work is verified using mobility traces from Community Resource for Archiving Wireless Data At Dartmouth, and the experimental result shows the elimination of selfish nodes participating in the DTN. The simulation result shows an increase of 19% in message delivery by forwarding only to a trusted intermediate node possible.     

URSA: ubiquitous and robust access control for mobile ad hoc networks

Restricting network access of routing and packet forwarding to well-behaving nodes and denying access from misbehaving nodes are critical for the proper functioning of a mobile ad-hoc network where cooperation among all networking nodes is usually assumed. However, the lack of a network infrastructure, the dynamics of the network topology and node membership, and the potential attacks from inside the network by malicious and/or noncooperative selfish nodes make the conventional network access control mechanisms not applicable. We present URSA, a ubiquitous and robust access control solution for mobile ad hoc networks. URSA implements ticket certification services through multiple-node consensus and fully localized instantiation. It uses tickets to identify and grant network access to well-behaving nodes. In URSA, no single node monopolizes the access decision or is completely trusted. Instead, multiple nodes jointly monitor a local node and certify/revoke its ticket. Furthermore, URSA ticket certification services are fully localized into each node's neighborhood to ensure service ubiquity and resilience. Through analysis, simulations, and experiments, we show that our design effectively enforces access control in the highly dynamic, mobile ad hoc network.     

On selection of forwarding nodes for long opportunistic routes

Opportunistic routing is a promising routing paradigm which increases the network throughput. It forces the sender’s neighbors, who successfully overheard the transmitted packet, to participate in the packet forwarding process as intermediate forwarding nodes. As a seminal opportunistic routing protocol, MORE combines network coding idea with opportunistic routing to eliminate the need for strict coordination among active forwarding nodes. In this paper, we show that MORE performance does not scale well with the route length, especially when the route length goes beyond two hops. Also, we found that MORE fails to establish a working opportunistic route in sparse networks. Clearly, the network throughput is directly influenced by both the quantity and quality of forwarding nodes, and their cooperation order. In this paper, we propose a new forwarder selection mechanism which considers the route length, link qualities, the distance from the source, and nodes density. It eliminates the occasional route disconnectivity happening in MORE and improves the quality of the established opportunistic routes. The simulation result indicates that our proposal always outperforms MORE when dealing with long opportunistic routes.

     

Routing Algorithms for MANET-IoT Networks: A Comprehensive Survey

With the powerful evolution of wireless communication systems in recent years, mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) are more and more applied in many fields such as environment, energy efficiency, intelligent transport systems, smart agriculture, and IoT ecosystems, as well as expected to contribute role more and more important in the future Internet. However, due to the characteristic of the mobile ad hoc environment, the performance is dependent mainly on the deployed routing protocol and relative low. Therefore, routing protocols should be more flexible and intelligent to enhance network performance. This paper surveyed and analysed a series of recently proposed routing protocols for MANET-IoT networks. Results have shown that these protocols are classified into four main categories: performance improvement, quality of service (QoS-aware), energy-saving, and security-aware. Most protocols are evolved from these existing traditional protocols. Then, we compare the performance of the four traditional routing protocols under the different movement speeds of the network node aim determines the most stable routing protocol in smart cities environments. The experimental results showed that the proactive protocol work is good when the movement network nodes are low. However, the reactive protocols have more stable and high performance for high movement network scenarios. Thus, we confirm that the proposal of the routing protocols for MANET becomes more suitable based on improving the ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing protocol. This study is the premise for our further in-depth research on IoT ecosystems.

     

Incentive based scheme for improving data availability in vehicular ad-hoc networks

Vehicular networks are popular in recent years to provide low cost communication medium during mobility. Vehicular Delay Tolerant Networks (DTNs) are one of the major categories of emerging technology. DTNs work on carry and forward mechanism to deliver data to the destination. The network performance gets severely affected due to reluctance shown by selfish nodes where few nodes show no interest in forwarding others data due to lack of any personal profit. The proposed mechanism is based on coalition game theory and discusses about incentive based mechanism which provides incentive to nodes which are forwarding data to forward to destination and motivates other vehicles in the network to participate in coalition to forward data. This scheme not only encourages other selfish nodes to forward their private data and other nodes’ public data as early as possible to destination but also increases reliability in the network as more nodes show their interest in selected routing protocol. The proposed scheme outperforms in overall benefit earned by individual node and whole coalition, and increases mutual cooperation which improves availability of data in the network.