Field dependence and interpersonal behavior.

A review of the literature indicates that people with field-dependent or field-independent cognitive styles are different in their interpersonal behavior in ways predicted by the theory of psychological differentiation. Field-dependent people make greater use of external social referents, but only when the situation is ambiguous and these referents provide information that helps to remove the ambiguity; field-independent people function with greater autonomy under such conditions. Field-dependent people are more attentive to social cues than are field-independent people. Field-dependent people have an interpersonal orientation: They show strong interest in others, prefer to be physically close to people, are emotionally open, and gravitate toward social situations. Field-independent people have an impersonal orientation: They are not very interested in others, show both physical and psychological distancing from people, and prefer nonsocial situations. Finally, field-dependent and field-independent people are different in an array of characteristics that make it likely that field-dependent people will get along better with others. Altogether, field-dependent people have a set of social skills that are less evident in field-independent people. On the other hand, field-independent people have greater skill in cognitive analysis and structuring. This pattern suggests that, with regard to level, the field-dependence–independence dimension is bipolar; each of the contrasting cognitive styles has components that are adaptive to particular situations, making the dimension value neutral. (7 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Oral communication and sales effectiveness.

The relationship between oral communication and sales effectiveness was investigated. 2 equatable groups of working sales people, a more effective "high" group and a less effective "low" group, were compared in terms of selected aspects of their communication behavior. Findings indicated that evaluations of basic oral communication skill (including listening) reliably differentiated between the 2 groups. Sales methods such as using "emotional appeals" and "dramatizing" also distinguished between the more effective and the less effective sales people. Results suggested: that evaluations of basic oral communication skill by a trained interviewer should be one valuable indicator of sales success; that communication training programs should subordinate fragmental, relatively isolated details of communication behavior to consideration of generalized communication skill; and that sales people who are inferior in basic oral communication skill will also be less effective in utilizing specialized persuasive techniques. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lake Wobegon be gone! The "below-average effect" and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments.

Like the inhabitants of Garrison Keillor's (1985) fictional community of Lake Wobegon, most people appear to believe that their skills and abilities are above average. A series of studies illustrates one of the reasons why: When people compare themselves with their peers, they focus egocentrically on their own skills and insufficiently take into account the skills of the comparison group. This tendency engenders the oft-documented above-average effect in domains in which absolute skills tend to be high but produces a reliable below-average effect in domains in which absolute skills tend to be low (Studies 1 and 2). In Study 3, cognitive load exacerbated these biases, suggesting that people "anchor" on their assessment of their own abilities and insufficiently "adjust" to take into account the skills of the comparison group. These results suggest that the tendency to see oneself as above average may not be as ubiquitous as once thought. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning from performance errors.

A theory of how people detect and correct their own performance errors during skill practice is proposed. The basic principles of the theory are that errors are caused by overly general knowledge structures, that error detection requires domain-specific declarative knowledge, that errors are experienced as conflicts between what the learner believes ought to be true and what he or she perceives to be the case, and that errors are corrected by specializing faulty knowledge structures so that they become active only in situations in which they are appropriate. A computer simulation model that embodies the theory learns cognitive skills in ecologically valid domains. The theory generates novel and testable predictions about error correction. It is also consistent with learning phenomena that are seemingly unrelated to errors, including transfer of training and the learning curve. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Skill in sport.

Presents data to illustrate chunking and categorizing performance for sport experts similar to that found for experts in traditional cognitive skills. 11 professional basketball players and 4 graduate student controls recalled 10 basketball plays to demonstrate chunking; the same 11 players and 10 nonplayer controls sorted 30 pictures of plays to demonstrate categorization performance. Extending the analysis to the acquisition of motor skill suggests that motor skills become proceduralized as do cognitive skills. The nature of proceduralization for the motor system is considered. Data from an experiment using Ss from the "best" and "worst" softball leagues in a city who attempted to bat with several interfering conditions are presented to indicate that sport experts develop the same sort of specialized declarative and procedural knowledge as experts in cognitive domains. (French abstract) (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A theory of cognitive development: The control and construction of hierarchies of skills.

Skill theory provides tools for predicting developmental sequences and synchronies in any domain at any point in development by integrating behavioral and cognitive-developmental concepts. Cognitive development is explained by skill structures called "levels," together with transformation rules relating these levels to each other. The transformation rules specify the developmental steps by which a skill moves gradually from one level of complexity to the next. At every step in these developmental sequences, the individual controls a particular skill. Skills are gradually transformed from sensory-motor actions to representations and then to abstractions. The transformations produce continuous behavioral changes; but across the entire profile of a person's skills and within highly practiced task domains, a stagelike shift in skills occurs as the person develops to an optimal level. The theory suggests a common framework for integrating developmental analyses of cognitive, social, language, and perceptual-motor skills and certain behavioral changes in learning and problem solving. (6 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The origins and ends of giftedness.

Five issues about giftedness are discussed. First, the origins of giftedness are explored. The view that giftedness is entirely a product of training is critiqued. There is indirect evidence for atypical brain organization and innate talent in gifted children: Many gifted children and savants have enhanced right-hemisphere development, language-related difficulties, and autoimmune disorders. Second, the intense motivation of gifted children is discussed. Third, it is argued that gifted children have social and emotional difficulties that set them apart. Fourth, evidence for the often uneven cognitive profiles of such children is presented. Finally, the relationship between childhood giftedness and "domain" creativity in adulthood is discussed. Few gifted children go on to become adult creators because the skills and personality factors required to be a creator are very different from those typical of even the most highly gifted children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological and demographic correlates of early academic skill development among American Indian and Alaska Native youth: A growth modeling study.

Research regarding the development of early academic skills among American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) students has been very limited to date. Using a nationally representative sample of AIAN, Hispanic, African American, and White children at school entry, the authors used latent growth models to estimate the associations among poverty, low parental education, living in a rural location, as well as child attitudes toward learning and internalizing/externalizing behaviors, with mathematical and reading cognitive skill development across the 1st 4 years of school. Results indicate that AIAN children entered kindergarten with scores on both mathematical and reading cognitive tests that were comparable to their peers from other ethnic groups of color. Importantly, all children who entered kindergarten with lower cognitive skill scores also acquired skills more slowly over the next 4 years. Having a positive approach to learning at the start of kindergarten was associated with cognitive skill levels at school entry nearly 1 standard deviation above the population average. Results are discussed with reference to the shared early educational profiles observed between AIAN and other children of color. These findings provide a much-needed update regarding early academic development among AIAN children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social skill deficit interventions for substance abusers.

Because substance abusers demonstrate significant cognitive and behavioral skill deficits, 2 social competency models of habilitation are proposed to increase abusers' life management skills and coping abilities. Social problem-solving training programs focus on generic cognitive problem-solving deficits, while social skills training programs address specific behavioral deficiencies. Social problem solving is a cognitive-behavioral approach that teaches people how to think, emphasizing thinking that is alternative, consequential, means-end, perspective taking, and social-causal. Social skills training may be taught using modeling, role playing, rehearsal, coaching, and feedback. Both approaches have been successful for increasing social adjustment and diminishing psychopathology among high-risk substance abusers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Team effectiveness: Beyond skills and cognitive ability.

On the basis of job analysis results, the validity of using measures of general cognitive ability, job-specific skills, and personality traits jointly at both the individual level and the group level to predict the performance of 79 four-person, human resource work teams was evaluated. Team member trait and job skill scores were aggregated with a conjunctive model of task performance. At the individual level of analysis, measures of personality (i.e., Agreeableness and Conscientiousness) predicted peer ratings of team member performance beyond measures of job-specific skills and general cognitive ability. Similarly, at the group level of analysis, both Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted supervisor ratings of work team performance, objective measures of work team accuracy, and work completed. At both the individual and group levels, the trait of Agreeableness predicted Interpersonal Skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive talk training in an adult with traumatic brain injury

Social skills often create a barrier to placement in less restrictive environments for persons with TBI. This case study illustrated the use of a positive talk program in the treatment of a person with long-standing social skill deficits. Occupational therapy intervention with speech-language consultation began with an evaluation of the cognitive barriers that influenced the client's social behavior. Work with the client's concrete concept formation, decreased memory, and poor generalization skills led to the development of the positive talk training program described. Through an understanding of the underlying cognitive deficits that influenced the client's behavior, the clinical team was able to develop an individual treatment plan. The intervention resulted in modification of behavior that would have required placing the client in a restricted environment. In the final analysis, the client's social skills improved to a level where he could be discharged to a less restrictive environment.     

Investigating differences in general comprehension skill.

For adults, skill at comprehending written language correlates highly with skill at comprehending spoken language. Does this general comprehension skill extend beyond language-based modalities? And if it does, what cognitive processes and mechanisms differentiate individuals who are more versus less proficient in general comprehension skill? In our first experiment, we found that skill in comprehending written and auditory stories correlates highly with skill in comprehending nonverbal, picture stories. This finding supports the hypothesis that general comprehension skill extends beyond language. We also found support for the hypotheses that poorer access to recently comprehended information marks less proficient general comprehension skill (Experiment 2) because less skilled comprehenders develop too many mental substructures during comprehension (Experiment 3), perhaps because they inefficiently suppress irrelevant information (Experiment 4). Thus, the cognitive processes and mechanisms involved in capturing and representing the structure of comprehensible information provide one source of individual differences in general comprehension skill. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Piagetian tasks as predictors of reading and math readiness in grades K–2.

Investigated which of 9 Piagetian tasks could function as a measure of a child's cognitive developmental readiness for reading and mathematics. Also examined were patterns of acquisition of the component skills associated with the "structure d'ensemble" of seriation, classification, and conservation. 121 children were tested at the end of kindergarten and again after 1st grade. Results indicate that knowledge of a child's general concrete operativity may be an important component of academic readiness. It is concluded that the problem that remains is identifying Ss' cognitive demands before attempting to match them with the cognitive constraint represented by the child's general level of operativity. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative benefits of assertion or cognitive self-control treatment for depression as a function of proficiency in each domain.

Compared responses to an assertion training and a cognitive self-control treatment as a function of 28 depressed females' (mean age 40 yrs) initial assertion and cognitive self-control skills. 16 other Ss served as waiting list controls. All Ss were assessed on measures including the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Beck Depression Inventory, and Rathus Assertiveness Schedule. It was predicted that (a) reductions in depression would be greater for treated as compared to waiting-list control conditions and (b) Ss low in a skill (cognitive or assertion) would benefit most from treatment addressing that skill. Only the 1st prediction was supported; treated Ss obtained greater depression reduction than controls. Neither cognitive nor assertion skill level significantly predicted response to the treatments. Effects of the treatments were not specific to targeted skills, and treatment had a significant impact only on cognitive self-control skill. Implications for skills-deficit models of depression therapy are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the acquisition of mnemonic skill: Application of skilled memory theory.

Skilled memory theory (W. G. Chase & K. A. Ericsson, 1981, 1982) can provide a useful theoretical framework for describing the details of performance during the acquisition of mnemonic skill, one that can point to the critical conditions necessary for the successful acquisition of mnemonic skills (in particular) and cognitive skills (in general). To provide support for this suggestion, the authors describe the results of an extended investigation of the uninstructed development of mnemonic skill in a group of normal adults. This study demonstrated that high levels of serial recall performance can be reliably developed in a group of individuals in a relatively short period of time (1 semester). In addition, the process of acquisition and the critical conditions for optimal training outcomes can be well described by the principles of skilled memory theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Skills of Cognitive Therapy (SoCT): A new measure of patients' comprehension and use.

The authors describe the development and psychometric properties of a new measure called the Skills of Cognitive Therapy (SoCT) in depressed adults and their cognitive therapists. The 8-item SoCT assesses patients' understanding and use of basic cognitive therapy (CT) skills rated from the perspectives of both observers (SoCT-O; therapists in this report) and patients (SoCT-P). Ratings of patients' skill usage are made on 5-point Likert-type scales ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always or when needed). Higher scores reflect greater patient skill in applying cognitive therapy principles and coping strategies. To develop this scale, a 33-item pool was used, rated by both patients and their therapists at the middle and end of CT (Ns = 359–416), and evaluated the reliability and concurrent and predictive validity of both versions of the scale. The SoCT has excellent internal consistency reliability and moderate correlations between the observer and patient versions. It is important to note that the SoCT showed good predictive validity for response when collected at the midpoint of acute phase CT. Considering both patients' self-ratings and clinicians' SoCT ratings, the odds ratio for responding to CT was 2.6. The practical utility of the SoCT is discussed, as well as its theoretical importance in research of patient CT skills (e.g., acquisition, comprehension, and generalization) as putative moderators or mechanisms of symptom change in the therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the interface of cognition and personality: Beyond the person–situation debate.

Discusses 3 aspects of the interface between cognition and personality. First, recent findings from the study of cognitive social psychology, judgmental heuristics, and person prototypes help to clarify some of the "cognitive economics" that influence how people (including psychologists) categorize each other naturally. It is shown that categorizations of people at different levels of inclusiveness have distinctive advantages and disadvantages and are therefore useful for different purposes. The 2nd topic explored is the development of children's understanding of psychological principles about social behavior generally, and the growth of their knowledge of effective rules for self-regulation in particular. Finally, studies showing surprising realism in depressed people raise questions about the nature and mechanisms of normal affect. These diverse lines of research share and represent a common theme: the increasing integration of cognitive and personological constructs in the study of persons. (69 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An exploratory analysis of American Indian children's cultural engagement, fluid cognitive skills, and standardized verbal IQ scores.

This exploratory cross-sectional study examined fluid cognitive skills and standardized verbal IQ scores in relation to cultural engagement amongst Tohono O'odham children (N = 99; ages 7 to 12 years). Guardians with higher socioeconomic status engaged their children in more cultural activities, and participation in more cultural activities contributed to higher standardized verbal IQ scores. Mean cognitive skill scores varied as a function of age and Tohono O'odham language knowledge. Children who understood and/or spoke Tohono O'odham started out with lower average scores than did children with no language knowledge, but mean scores generally increased in the older age groups such that they were equal to or higher than those of nonspeakers by age 9. Children with higher fluid cognitive skill scores had higher standardized verbal IQ scores than did children with lower scores. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Health professionals, disability, and assisted suicide: An examination of relevant empirical evidence and reply to Batavia (2000).

Prominent disability rights groups have adopted positions opposing the legalization of assisted suicide. That physicians and other health professionals would assist in suicides of persons with incurable conditions while offering suicide prevention to "healthy" individuals is, they maintain, evidence of social discrimination and an unwarranted devaluation of the quality of life of people with disabilities. This article examined empirical literature relevant to the question: Is there evidence that disability affects life in a manner that justifies an exception to the general practice of preventing rather than endorsing suicide? Research findings are discussed in terms of their bearing on the disability rights opposition to physician-assisted suicide and the need for research addressing the dynamics of death requests of persons with disabilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Randomized trial of social rehabilitation and integrated health care for older people with severe mental illness.

Objective: The Helping Older People Experience Success (HOPES) program was developed to improve psychosocial functioning and reduce long-term medical burden in older people with severe mental illness (SMI) living in the community. HOPES includes 1 year of intensive skills training and health management, followed by a 1-year maintenance phase. Method: To evaluate effects of HOPES on social skills and psychosocial functioning, we conducted a randomized controlled trial with 183 older adults with SMI (58% schizophrenia spectrum) age 50 and older at 3 sites who were assigned to HOPES or treatment as usual with blinded follow-up assessments at baseline and 1- and 2-year follow-up. Results: Retention in the HOPES program was high (80%). Intent-to-treat analyses showed significant improvements for older adults assigned to HOPES compared to treatment as usual in performance measures of social skill, psychosocial and community functioning, negative symptoms, and self-efficacy, with effect sizes in the moderate (.37–.63) range. Exploratory analyses indicated that men improved more than women in the HOPES program, whereas benefit from the program was not related to psychiatric diagnosis, age, or baseline levels of cognitive functioning, psychosocial functioning, or social skill. Conclusions: The results support the feasibility of engaging older adults with SMI in the HOPES program, an intensive psychiatric rehabilitation intervention that incorporates skills training and medical case management, and improves psychosocial functioning in this population. Further research is needed to better understand gender differences in benefit from the HOPES program. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)