Point spread functions for a small gamma camera with pinhole collimator

A set of point spread functions (PSF) has been obtained by means of Monte-Carlo simulation for a small gamma camera with a pinhole collimator of various hole diameters. The FOV (field of view) of the camera is expended from 45 mm to 70 mm in diameter. The position dependence of the variances of PSF is presented, and the acceptance for the 140 keV gamma rays is explored. A phantom of 70 mm in diameter was experimentally imaged in the camera with effective FOV of only 45 mm in diameter.     

Characteristics of parallel-hole and pinhole collimators for nuclear medicine imaging

In this paper,the spatial resolution and geometry sensitivity of parallel- and pin-hole collimators in compact gamma camera are presented,and quantitatively compared by GEANT4 code in Monte-Carlo library.The results show that the geometry sensitivity for pinhole collimator rapidly drops with increasing the gamma source-to- collimator distance(SCD);and for parallel-hole collimator,mildly.Meanwhile,the spatial resolution for pin-hole collimator mildly deteriorates;and for parallel-hole collimator,severely.The pin-hole collimator for close imaging objects has higher geometry sensitivity than parallel-hole collimator.Our findings are helpful for setting compact gamma camera collimators in nuclear medicine imaging.     

Phantom experiments on a PSAPD-based compact gamma camera with submillimeter spatial resolution for small animal SPECT

We demonstrate a position sensitive avalanche photodiode (PSAPD) based compact gamma camera for the application of small animal single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). The silicon PSAPD with a two-dimensional resistive layer and four readout channels is implemented as a gamma ray detector to record the energy and position of radiation events from a radionuclide source. A 2 mm thick monolithic CsI:Tl scintillator is optically coupled to a PSAPD with a 8mm×8mm active area, providing submillimeter intrinsic spatial resolution, high energy resolution (16% full-width half maximum at 140 keV) and high gain. A mouse heart phantom filled with an aqueous solution of 370 MBq (99m)Tc-pertechnetate (140 keV) was imaged using the PSAPD detector module and a tungsten knife-edge pinhole collimator with a 0.5 mm diameter aperture. The PSAPD detector module was cooled with cold nitrogen gas to suppress dark current shot noise. For each projection image of the mouse heart phantom, a rotated diagonal readout algorithm was used to calculate the position of radiation events and correct for pincushion distortion. The reconstructed image of the mouse heart phantom demonstrated reproducible image quality with submillimeter spatial resolution (0.7 mm), showing the feasibility of using the compact PSAPD-based gamma camera for a small animal SPECT system.     

Development of a low-energy high resolution X-ray camera for high-energy gamma photon background environments

Although a high-energy gamma camera can obtain images of ¹³⁷Cs distribution by detecting the 662-keV gamma photons, its spatial resolution is reduced because high-energy gamma photons penetrate the edge of the pinhole collimator. To solve this problem, we developed a low-energy X-ray camera that detects the characteristic X-ray photons (32–37 keV) that are emitted from ¹³⁷Cs to obtain high resolution images. We used a 45 × 45 × 1-mm-thick NaI(Tl) scintillator that was encapsulated in 0.1-mm-thick aluminum and optically coupled to a 2-inch square, position sensitive photomultiplier tube (Hamamatsu Photonics, PSPMT:H12700 MOD) as an imaging detector. The imaging detector was encased in a 2-cm-thick tungsten alloy container and a pinhole collimator was attached to its camera head. The spatial resolution and sensitivity were ～5 mm full-width at half-maximum and ～0.6 cps/MBq for the 1.5-mm pinhole collimator 10 cm from the collimator surface, respectively. We administered 5 MBq of ¹³⁷Cs to a soybean seedling, imaged the distribution of radionuclides for six hours, and successfully obtained a high resolution image of it with our developed X-ray camera. We believe our camera will be a powerful tool for such ¹³⁷Cs imaging in plants.     

区域γ辐射定向监测仪准直器的设计

为区域γ辐射分布定向监测实验相机系统设计了一个针孔准直器。应用针孔准直器的解析公式,根据探测器内在分辨率和实验相机系统的预期分辨率,考虑探测器尺寸,确定了相机的焦距及准直器的张角;然后根据预期角分辨率计算有效孔径,得出孔径和孔深的范围;再利用蒙特卡罗方法模拟面源入射,在各种孔径和孔深组合中,挑选出透射和散射光子份额最小的组为最优组,对应孔径和孔深参数即为最优参数。     

A compact gamma camera with scintillation array and parallel-hole collimator

A new compact gamma camera for small object imaging has been developed. It consists of a pixelized Nal（T1） scintillator array coupled to a position sensitive photomultiplier tube （Hamamatsu R2486） with a parallel-hole lead collimator. The compact camera has better spatial resolution than Anger camera. The average value of intrinsic spatial resolutions is 2.3 mm （FWHM）. The overall spatial resolution （FWHM） is 3, 5 and 6 mm at 0, 2.5 and 3 mm SCD （source-to-collimator distance）, respectively. The phantom studies with the compact camera have demonstrated that parallel-hole collimator gamma camera is a practical technique for nuclear medicine application.     

高能γ光子成像针孔准直器的解析设计方法

在对高辐射环境进行射线源分布成像时,需要为γ相机设计专门的用于高能光子成像的针孔准直器。为了简化针孔准直器的设计过程,使用几个新的解析公式来描述准直器各参数与性能间的关系。首先,采用解析方法推导了更通用的有效孔径公式、角分辨率公式和几何相对效率公式;然后,与采用蒙特卡罗方法模拟计算得到的数值进行比较。结果表明,解析方法提供的计算结果在一定范围内准确可靠。因此,本工作使用的针孔准直器解析设计方法简单方便,物理图像清晰,具有一定的实用价值。     

高分辨率小动物SPECT成像系统的设计与性能评估

为实现低成本、高分辨率的小动物单光子发射断层成像(SPECT),设计了一种基于临床探测器和针孔准直器的小动物SPECT成像系统。综合考虑视野尺寸、空间分辨率和绝对探测效率等指标,分别给出了单针孔和七针孔准直器的两种最优化设计方案,并通过对比两种设计方案在全视野范围内的平均空间分辨率和探测效率,对成像性能进行了评估。结果表明,与单孔准直器相比采用七针孔准直器设计可同时获得更高的空间分辨率和探测效率。经蒙特卡罗模拟成像实验验证,该七针孔准直器在临床探测器上可达0.5mm级的超高空间分辨率,且成本远低于采用专用探测器的现有小动物SPECT系统。     

高分辨micro-SPECT成像系统针孔准直器的优化设计

为了最大限度地减少γ射线在针孔准直器上的透射和散射效应,采用蒙特卡罗方法对单光子发射计算机断层(SPECT)成像系统使用的针孔准直器进行优化.模拟计算结果与实验测试得到的系统灵敏度和空间分辨率曲线相符,达到了高分辨小动物成像的要求.     

Pinhole collimator design for nuclear survey system

A conventional knife-edge collimator, which is widely used in gamma camera for medical diagnosis, is not suitable for nuclear imaging system because many scattering radiations near the pinhole aperture happen and blur image. A new pinhole collimator, which shapes a channeled aperture for reducing image degradation induced by the scattering radiations, is introduced and its characteristics are analyzed by Monte Carlo simulation. Resolutions defined as the full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of point spread function and efficiencies are calculated about several pinhole diameters from 4 to 8 mm and channel heights from 2 to 10 mm. For this calculation, we assumed that ¹³⁷Cs radiation sources with 662 keV mono-energies enter into our designed collimator at the 1 m distance from the detector plane. The efficiencies and resolutions of the channeled collimator are compared with those of the conventional collimator. By comparison results, it is verified that the new collimator takes advantage more than the conventional collimator. The optimum channel height and diameter of the pinhole collimator from simulation results are also proposed and designed. We finally acquired nuclear image mounting this collimator in the nuclear survey system.     

Depth-of-Interaction Compensation Using a Focused-Cut Scintillator for a Pinhole Gamma Camera

Preclinical SPECT offers a powerful means to understand the molecular pathways of drug interactions in animal models by discovering and testing new pharmaceuticals and therapies for potential clinical applications. A combination of high spatial resolution and sensitivity are required in order to map radiotracer uptake within small animals. Pinhole collimators have been investigated, as they offer high resolution by means of image magnification. One of the limitations of pinhole geometries is that increased magnification causes some rays to travel through the detection scintillator at steep angles, introducing parallax errors due to variable depth-of-interaction in scintillator material, especially towards the edges of the detector field of view. These parallax errors ultimately limit the resolution of pinhole preclinical SPECT systems, especially for higher energy isotopes that can easily penetrate through millimeters of scintillator material. A pixellated, focused-cut (FC) scintillator, with its pixels laser-cut so that they are collinear with incoming rays, can potentially compensate for these parallax errors and thus improve the system resolution. We performed the first experimental evaluation of a newly developed focused-cut scintillator. We scanned a Tc-99m source across the field of view of pinhole gamma camera with a continuous scintillator, a conventional "straight-cut" (SC) pixellated scintillator, and a focused-cut scintillator, each coupled to an electron-multiplying charge coupled device (EMCCD) detector by a fiber-optic taper, and compared the measured full-width half-maximum (FWHM) values. We show that the FWHMs of the focused-cut scintillator projections are comparable to the FWHMs of the thinner SC scintillator, indicating the effectiveness of the focused-cut scintillator in compensating parallax errors.     

基于位置灵敏光电倍增管的小型γ相机

描述了一套基于位置灵敏光电倍增管（PSPMT）的小型γ相机系统的建立与测试。该系统由PSPMT、整体式NaI(Tl)晶体、平行孔铅准直器和电子学系统构成,其对^57Co(122keV)泛源γ射线的能量分辨率为27％;对于2mm直径铅准直孔的空间分辨率（FWHM）约为4mm。测试结果表明,这种γ相机在小视野放射性显影方面与传统γ相机相比有其优越性。     

被动法γ光子针孔成像测量Pu部件对称性的数值模拟分析

采用Monte-Carlo数值模拟方法,理论分析Pu部件在不同针孔装置下的γ光子辐射场分布,论证了被动法γ光子针孔成像用于测量Pu部件对称性的可行性。数值模拟分析显示：采用优化的针孔装置,可提高成像质量;针孔装置特征、物距、像距属于敏感信息,对这些因素应有限制措施,以防止敏感信息泄漏。     

The YAP camera: an accurate gamma camera particularly suitable fornew radiopharmaceuticals research

The YAP Camera represents refined research instrument in nuclear medicine and pharmacology because of its overall detection efficiency comparable to an Anger Camera and its submillimeter intrinsic spatial resolution. The YAP Camera consists of a YAP:Ce multicrystal matrix, whose pillars dimensions are 0.6 mm×0.6 mm×10 mm, optically coupled with a position sensitive PMT Hamamatsu R2486 and furnished with a parallel hole lead collimator 20 mm thick with holes diameter of 0.5 mm and septa of 0.15 mm. At this stage it is a miniature camera, with a field of view (FOV) of 40 mm×40 mm and a total spatial resolution of 1.0-1.2 mm, currently used for radiotracers studies on small biological specimens. A detailed analysis of the detector position linearity and energy responses are presented in this work. The intrinsic spatial resolution is studied with three different single hole collimators (1.0, 0.3, and 0.2 mm), and a theoretical equation is presented. Three different parallel hole collimators are tested to evaluate the optimal hole and septa dimensions. Finally, it is demonstrated that two correction procedures are capable of recovering the image spatial homogeneity and of removing the statistical noise. Some phantom images show the importance of the small-field YAP Camera in the radiopharmacological research     

X-ray CCD相机在杆箍缩二极管X射线焦斑诊断中的应用

针孔成像法是诊断杆箍缩二极管X射线焦斑的常用方法。本文建立基于增感屏、光锥耦合、CCD相机的X-ray CCD相机系统,取代针孔成像法中基于闪烁体、物镜、CCD相机的图像获取系统,提高了诊断系统的紧凑性。对所建立的X-ray CCD相机系统的空间分辨能力进行了测试,系统的空间分辨能力受增感屏限制,使用铅制分辨卡测得系统的空间分辨率为5lp/mm,使用刀口法测得调制传递函数为0.5时的频率为1.5lp/mm。测试结果表明,在针孔成像倍率为0.5时,可满足1.5 mm左右的X射线焦斑诊断的需要。并开展了杆箍缩二极管侧面焦斑诊断实验,获得了侧面焦斑图像,且进行了图像复原处理。     

Monte Carlo simulation of breast tumor imaging properties withcompact, discrete gamma cameras

Describes Monte Carlo simulation results for breast tumor imaging using a compact, discrete gamma camera. The simulations were designed to analyze and optimize camera design, particularly collimator configuration and detector pixel size. Simulated planar images of 5-15 mm diameter tumors in a phantom patient (including a breast, torso, and heart) were generated for imaging distances of 5-55 mm, pixel sizes of 2×2-4×4 mm², and hexagonal and square hole collimators with sensitivities from 4000 to 16,000 counts/mCi/sec. Other factors considered included T/B (tumor-to-background tissue uptake ratio) and detector energy resolution. Image properties were quantified by computing the observed tumor FWHM (full-width at half-maximum) and S/N (sum of detected tumor events divided by the statistical noise). Results suggest that hexagonal and square hole collimators perform comparably, that higher sensitivity collimators provide higher tumor S/N with little increase in the observed tumor FWHM, that smaller pixels only slightly improve tumor FWHM and S/N, and that improved detector energy resolution has little impact on either the observed tumor FWHM or the observed tumor S/N     

YAP multi-crystal gamma camera prototype

The Anger camera principle has shown a practical limit of a few millimeters spatial resolution. To overcome this limit, a new gamma camera prototype has been developed, based on a position-sensitive photomultiplier tube (PSPMT) coupled with a new scintillation crystal. The Hamamatsu R2486 PSPMT is a 76-mm diameter photomultiplier tube in which the electrons produced in the conventional bi-alkali photocathode are multiplied by proximity mesh dynodes and form a charge cloud around the original coordinates of the light photon striking the photocathode. A crossed wire anode array collects the charge and detects the original position. The intrinsic spatial resolution of PSPMT is better than 0.3 mm. The scintillation crystal consists of yttrium aluminum perovskit (YAP:Ce or YAlO₃:Ce). This crystal has a light efficiency of about 38% relative to NaI, no hygroscopicity and a good gamma radiation absorption. To match the characteristics of the PSPMT, a special crystal assembly was produced by the Preciosa Company, consisting of a bundle of YAP:Ce pillars where single crystals have 0.6×0.6 mm² cross section and 3 mm to 18 mm length. Preliminary results from such gamma camera prototypes show spatial resolution values ranging between 0.7 mm and 1 mm with an intrinsic detection efficiency of 37÷65% for 140 keV gamma energy     

A high-resolution small animal SPECT system developed at Tsinghua

An SPECT system dedicated to small animal imaging shall be of a millimeter spatial resolution or even better.This study was aimed at achieving 0.5-mm spatial resolution for a small animal SPECT system at low cost.It was developed from a single-head clinical SPECT scanner,with a seven-pinhole collimator and a four-degree-offreedom motion control stage.Several key techniques were developed,including high-resolution image reconstruction algorithm,high accuracy geometrical calibration method,and optimized system matrix derivation scheme.The system matrix was derived from Monte-Carlo simulation and de-noised by fitting each point spread function to a two dimensional Gaussian function.Experiments of point source and ultra micro hot rod phantom were conducted.With a spatial resolution of 0.5-0.6 mm,this system provides a practical way for low-cost high-resolution animal imaging on a clinic SPECT system.     

Resolution and sensitivity as a function of energy and incident geometry for germanium detectors

The use of modeling programs such as MCNP to predict the response of HPGe detectors is increasing in importance. Accurate simulation of germanium detectors to incident gamma rays relies on knowledge of the performance of the detector in different detector–source geometries. Two important performance parameters are the resolution and sensitivity. The resolution is the FWHM and FW.1M/FWHM ratio. The IEEE 325-1996 standard only specifies the FWHM measurement at one geometry and two energies. Nearly all measurements are made in a different geometry and at other energies. Other investigators [Specifications for Today’s Coaxial HPGe Detectors, 2001 ANS Annual Meeting, Milwaukee, WI; Metzger, private communication, see also: Radionuclide Depth Distribution by Collimated Spectroscopy, 2002 ANS Topical Meeting, Santa Fe, NM], have shown that the sensitivity and resolution change with position of the incident gamma ray on the front of the detector. Such variability has possible implications for the accuracy of peak shape and area determination, since the calibration is potentially a function of angle of incidence. To quantify the sensitivity and resolution variation as a function of energy and point of incidence, measurements have been made on several coaxial detectors of various crystal types and sizes in different source–detector geometries. The full-energy peaks from 59 keV to 2.6 MeV were used. The detectors were placed in a low-background shield to reduce any contribution from external sources. None of the detectors tested was a low-background type. The sources used were an ²⁴¹Am source, ⁶⁰Co source and a natural thorium oxide sample. The ²⁴¹Am 59 keV gamma rays were collimated by a 2 cm thick, 1 mm diameter lead collimator. Several gamma rays from the thorium source were used and collimated by a 10 cm thick and 2 mm diameter tungsten collimator. These collimated sources were used to collect spectra for the incident beam on the front and sides of the detectors. The peak widths were calculated using the methods outlined in IEEE 325-1996. Data are presented to show that the peak shape and sensitivity change with incident beam position and full peak energy.     

X射线源针孔成像系统优化设计研究

为提高X射线源针孔成像系统的性能,对成像能区为10~100 keV的X射线源针孔成像系统进行了优化设计研究。综合应用了理论分析和蒙特卡罗模拟的方法,首先根据X射线波长、准直器角响应和X射线穿透效应对针孔成像的不同影响结果设计了可有效控制成像分辨率和成像面积变化的船底型准直器,随后用蒙特卡罗方法对使用该准直器的针孔成像系统进行了模拟验证。结果表明,对于100 keV以下的X射线,经船底型准直器后,成像的空间分辨率和亮斑亮度较稳定,能得到相对准确的X射线源定位、定量信息。