On the long standing question of nuclear track etch induction time: Surface-cap model

Using a systematic set of experiments, nuclear track etch induction time measurements in a widely used CR-39 detector were completed for accessible track-forming particles (fission fragments, 5.2 MeV alpha particles and 5.9 MeV antiprotons). Results of the present work are compared with appropriately selected published results. The possibility of the use of etch induction time for charged particle identification is evaluated. Analysis of experimental results along with the use of well-established theoretical concepts yielded a model about delay in the start of chemical etching of nuclear tracks. The suggested model proposes the formation of a surface-cap (top segment) in each nuclear track consisting of chemically modified material with almost same or even higher resistance to chemical etching compared with bulk material of the track detector. Existing track formation models are reviewed very briefly, which provide one of the two bases of the proposed model. The other basis of the model is the general behavior of hot or energised material having a connection with an environment containing a number of species like ordinary air. Another reason for the delay in the start of etching is suggested as the absence of localization of etching atoms/molecules, which is present during etching at depth along the latent track.     

Properties of Auger electrons following excitation of polarized atoms by polarized electrons

In non-relativistic approximation, the most general expression for differential cross sections describing the properties of Auger-electron emission induced in the excitation of polarized atoms by polarized electrons is obtained for the first time. The ways of the application of the general expressions suitable for the specific experimental conditions are outlined by deriving the expressions for the asymmetry parameters and the magnetic dichroism of the angular distribution of the Auger electrons as well as of the angular correlations between the scattered and Auger electrons.     

Nuclear track formation and skewness of particle trajectories in the target: A new perspective

It is discussed why track detectors such as CR-39 and CN-85, which are only composed of light elements, are highly sensitive and efficient compared with detectors such as glass and mica, which are partly or fully composed of heavier elements. Weak scattering of incident particles by light target atoms does not significantly deviate incident particles from their straight trajectories while the target atoms recoil considerably, damaging the detector. Heavier atoms scatter incident particles through wide angles, significantly deviating them from their straight paths while the target atoms recoil weakly, producing less damage. Simulations are presented to demonstrate these concepts about nuclear track formation.     

Proton/antiproton collisions with positronium in the presence of an electric field

Effects of aligned electric field on the hydrogen formation mechanism have been studied. Classical trajectory Monte Carlo (CTMC) method is used to simulate the proton/antiproton collisions with positronium (Ps) in the energy range of 1-200 keV. Total cross section for an electron/positron capture by colliding proton/antiproton has been calculated using the simple Coulomb potential. The hydrogen and antihydrogen formation in these capture processes, as expected, is reported to be charge conjugate. The capture cross sections are in reasonable agreement with the recently reported experimental and theoretical results. The effects of the external electric field are seen to be quite prominent.     

Polarization effects on the cross-section of ion-atom collisions

Coupled-channel cross-sections for electron capture, ionization and electron loss due to polarization effects are calculated. The maximum impact parameter for electron escape is analyzed within the classical framework. The probabilities of ionization and capture are analyzed simultaneously by a semi-empirical method. Differing from the n-body classical trajectory Monte Carlo method, the condition for electron escape is determined by Coulomb forces related to the two nuclei. This method can be used to calculate coupled-channel cross-sections rather than single-channel ones in other methods. Therefore the calculated results can be compared with experimental data directly. In the low energy range, neglecting the ionization effect, the single-capture cross-sections of hydrogen atoms induced by various partially-stripped ions were calculated. In the high energy range, neglecting the capture effect on ionization, the pure-ionization cross-sections of neon atoms induced by Ne^q+ (q = 4, 6, 8) and Ar^q+ (q = 4, 6, 8, 10) at an incident energy E = 1.05 MeV/u were calculated. Good agreement was found between our calculation and experimental data in the literature. This method had been partially applied for intermediate energy successfully.     

Dynamics of collisions with positrons

The measurement of ionization by positron impact reveals that the maximum of the electron capture to the continuum cusp is shifted from its theoretical position. In this work the hypothesis that the observed effect is the result of an anisotropic momentum distribution in the projectile-electron reference system is considered.By elaborating on the ansatz that the cusp asymmetry is qualitatively similar for positron impact than the for ion-atom collisions, we obtain fully differential cross sections that show the same features than those experimentally observed. The present estimation for the position of the maximum agrees well with cross section measurements performed in coincident electron-positron detection experiments.     

Near threshold vibrational excitation of molecules by positron impact: A projection operator approach

We report vibrational excitation (ν_i=0→ν_f=1) cross-sections for positron scattering by H₂ and model calculations for the (ν_i=0→ν_f=1) excitation of the C-C symmetric stretch mode of C₂H₂. The Feshbach projection operator formalism was employed to vibrationally resolve the fixed-nuclei phase shifts obtained with the Schwinger multichannel method. The near threshold behavior of H₂ and C₂H₂ significantly differ in the sense that no low lying singularity (either virtual or bound state) was found for the former, while a e⁺-acetylene virtual state was found at the equilibrium geometry (this virtual state becomes a bound state upon stretching the molecule). For C₂H₂, we also performed model calculations comparing excitation cross-sections arising from virtual (-iκ₀) and bound (+iκ₀) states symmetrically located around the origin of the complex momentum plane (i.e. having the same κ₀). The virtual state is seen to significantly couple to vibrations, and similar cross-sections were obtained for shallow bound and virtual states.     

Convolution approximation for the energy loss, ionization probability and straggling of fast ions

In this work we describe an extension of the convolution approximation for the ionization probability and energy-loss straggling as a function of the impact parameter for swift ions. Analytical formulas for these quantities are derived and compared to full first-order Born calculations. The physical inputs of the model are the electron density and oscillators strengths of the target as well as the screening function of the projectile (in the case of dressed ions). A very good agreement is obtained for all impact parameters. In addition, we propose a general schema to add contributions from distant and close collisions. In this way physical processes arising from large and small impact parameters can be easily included into a single expression valid for all impact parameters. This model is then used to investigate the projectile-charge q dependence of ionization, stopping and straggling cross-sections.     

Charge transfer in collisions of protons with water molecule at high projectile energies and small scattering angles

The electron capture process induced by fast protons impinging upon water has been theoretically studied for very small scattering angles. Singly differential and total cross sections have been calculated for scattering angles ranging from 0 to 0.5 mrad and compared to the existing experimental data. For the sake of comparison, we have also presented the theoretical charge transfer cross sections for proton-helium collisions.     

Laser modification of silica, simulating pulse shape and length

Computer simulations of instantaneous thermal heating due to a laser pulse is modeled as a pulse occurring over 1 or 100 fs, during which time the atoms within a cylinder are given excess kinetic energy to mimic the effect of adding energy locally to a system by a laser. The response of the material under conditions in which a similar amount of energy is dumped within 1 fs versus over a 100 fs pulse with two distinct shapes, square and Gaussian-like, is explored. Key physics disclosed is that with a pulse width of 100 fs, as the energy is being added it begins to dissipate away from region where it is added. With a 1 fs (instantaneous) pulse there is greater initial ballistic behavior than when it is dumped over a 100 fs period. In the latter, there are localized hot spots displaying ballistic behavior.     

Safe radioisotope thermoelectric generators and heat sources for space applications

Several isotopes are examined as alternatives to ²³⁸Pu that is traditionally used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and heating units (RHUs). The radioisotopes discussed include ²⁴¹Am, ²⁰⁸Po, ²¹⁰Po, and ⁹⁰Sr. The aim of this study is to facilitate the design of an RTG with a minimal radiation dose rate and mass including any required shielding. Applications of interest are primarily space and planetary exploration. In order to evaluate the properties of the alternative radioisotopes a Monte Carlo model was developed to examine the radiation protection aspect of the study. The thermodynamics of the power generation process is examined and possible materials for the housing and encapsulation of the radioisotopes are proposed. In this study we also present a historical review of radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and the thermoelectric conversion mechanism in order to provide a direct comparison with the performance of our proposed alternative isotope systems.     

Measurements of free radical in vitamin E-doped ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene: Dependence on materials processing and irradiation environments

Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), doped with vitamin E (α-tocopherol (α-T)), was irradiated with gamma rays in nitrogen (N₂) or air, and the resulting free radicals were detected in air using an electron spin resonance (ESR) technique. Two groups of samples were investigated. In one group, samples were prepared from blends of α-T (20 wt%) and UHMWPE powder (PPE-α-T) and, in the other, from compression molded blocks (CMPE-α-T). The CMPE-α-T blocks contained 0% (control), 0.5%, 1.0%, 10.0%, 15.0%, 20.0% and 25.0% α-T by weight.When irradiation was performed in air, the ESR spectrum of powder samples showed the presence of only vitamin E radical (tocopheroxyl, α-T-O), and there was no detectable signal due to PE radicals (alkyl/allyl). Most likely, all PE radicals were quenched by vitamin E during irradiation in air. However, when irradiation was performed in N₂, composite ESR spectra showed the presence of both PE and α-T-O radicals. Compared to the control (PPE, 0% α-T) PE radicals in PPE-20% α-T were found to be significantly reduced or quenched by α-T. The presence of α-T in powder samples, however, did not affect the long-term (71 days in this study) oxidation behavior of the PE radicals.Compression molded samples, with and without α-T, produced identical ESR spectra irrespective of their irradiation environment N₂ or air. However, radical concentration, measured immediately after irradiation, was found to be an order of magnitude less in CMPE-α-T than in the control (CMPE-0% α-T). They also evidenced identical structural changes in the respective ESR spectra during subsequent oxidation for 24 days in open air. These observations suggest that α-T can effectively quench a significant fraction of PE radicals during irradiation, but has no measurable effect on subsequent reactions. No significant difference was found in the ESR spectra of samples containing different α-T concentration.     

Radiation-induced grafting of inorganic particles onto polymer backbone: A new method to design polymer-based nanocomposite

Polypropylene/polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (PP/POSS) nanocomposites were prepared by in situ radiation-induced grafting of POSS onto PP. Radiation-induced grafting of POSS was confirmed by FT-IR spectroscopy. The mechanical property of PP/POSS nanocomposites increased with the increase in POSS content and with the increase in absorption dose up to 5 kGy, above which it started to decrease. The reduction of mechanical property at high doses can be attributed to the chain scission of PP by radiation. The degree of reduction in decomposition temperature of irradiated PP/POSS nanocomposites was found to be much less than that of neat PP due to the covalent grafting of POSS onto PP by radiation.     

SIMS analysis of xenon and krypton in uranium dioxide: A comparison of two models of gas-phase ionisation

Reasonable detection limits in secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) analysis of inert gases in solids may be achieved by gas-phase ionisation. For Xe in UO₂ Desgranges and Pasquet (D&P) have recently reported that the ion intensity can be enhanced significantly using ion bombardment in combination with an oxygen jet directed at the sputtered area. A similar effect was reported by Portier et al. for Kr in UO₂. The enhancement was attributed to ionisation by an interaction with oxygen atoms and molecules (D&P model). The proposed mechanism is at variance with a recently outlined model of gas-phase ionisation involving charge transfer between the ejected atoms and the incoming primary ions. The purpose of this study was to clarify these contradictory views by a reanalysis of the original data. Access to all relevant original data was kindly provided by L. Desgranges. In contrast to expectation based on the D&P model, step-wise increases in the flow rate of the oxygen jet did not result in an immediate response of . Instead, transient yield changes were observed, with characteristic rise times that were even longer for Xe⁺ than for uranium specific signals. This observation invalidates the idea that ionisation of Xe atoms is due to interaction with oxygen molecules of the jet. Recalling well known transient phenomena in ion-bombardment induced photon emission, it is argued that the enhancement effect may be associated with the increase in the oxidation state of the sample, as a result of which the fraction of Xe (or Kr) atoms leaving the sample in an electronically excited state is presumably increasing, thus enlarging the effective cross section for charge transfer. Alternatively, the enhancement may be due to a lowering of the ejection velocity of rare gas atoms, possibly caused by the increase in near-surface sample oxidation. A second problem with the D&P study is the use of as a reference signal. Literature data as well as new results reveal that and UO⁺ secondary ions dominate the SIMS spectrum of oxidised uranium at energies <60 eV, the U⁺ fraction amounting to only 1% or less. Other issues are (i) the significant variation of the sample erosion rate that occurred upon deliberate changes of the mean primary ion current density, (ii) the associated bombardment induced, progressive oxygen depletion of the sample, (iii) the presence of a background superimposed on the Xe⁺ signals, a significant effect at low current densities and (iv) the space-charge broadening of the primary ion beam at high beam currents. Eliminating all these interfering factors, the (reduced) ionisation probabilities of Xe⁺ were found to be in accordance with gas-phase ionisation by charge exchange, even in the pressure of excessive oxygen flooding.     

Low energy elastic scattering of positrons by CO: An application of continued fractions and Schwinger variational iterative methods

Iterative Schwinger variational methods and the method of continued fractions, widely used for electron-molecule scattering, are applied for the first time to investigate positron-molecule interactions. Specifically, integral and differential cross sections for elastic positron scattering by CO in the (0.5-20) eV energy range are calculated and reported. In our calculation, a static plus correlation-polarization potential is used to represent the collisional dynamics. Our calculated results are in general agreement with the theoretical and experimental data available in the literature.     

Alpha induced reactions on Cd and Cd: An experimental study of excitation functions

Excitation functions of alpha induced reactions on enriched ¹¹⁴Cd and ¹¹⁶Cd targets, leading to the formation of the ^117m,119mSn, ^{114m₁,115m,116m,117m,g}In, ^115gCd isotopes, were studied by the stacked foil activation technique. Reaction cross-sections were measured from their respective thresholds up to E_α = 38.9 MeV. Quantification of induced isotopes has been made by gamma and X-ray spectrometry. The experimental cross-sections are compared, where available, with values reported previously in literature. Thick target yield for the medically important radionuclide ^117mSn is calculated based on discrete values of measured cross-sections.     

PIXE and XRF analysis of particulate matter samples: an inter-laboratory comparison

PIXE and XRF are very effective techniques in atmospheric aerosol investigation, therefore they are extensively used by the authors. In this work an inter-laboratory comparison of the results obtained analysing several samples (collected on different substrata) with both techniques is presented: the samples were analysed by PIXE (in Florence, at the 3 MV Tandetron accelerator of LABEC laboratory) and by XRF (in Genoa and Milan, where two Oxford XRF instruments are operational). The results of the three sets of measurements are in good agreement for all the analysed samples.The aim of this work was also to compare PIXE and XRF performance in atmospheric aerosol analysis with the routine set-up currently in use at the three laboratories, to determine the best technique to be applied depending on the substratum used for aerosol sampling and the main elements of interest for each specific research project. Results of the comparison between the minimum detection limits of both techniques will be shown for all the measured elements, for different substrata (Teflon, polycarbonate and cellulose mixed esters).     

Dispersion coefficients for interactions between positronium and light atoms with pure Coulomb and screened Coulomb potentials

The Van der Waals two-body dispersion coefficients for interactions between the positronium (Ps) atom and light atoms have been investigated using highly correlated exponential basis functions in the framework of both pure Coulomb and screened Coulomb potentials. The C₆, C₈ and C₁₀ coefficients for Ps-Ps and Ps-H interactions, and the C₆ coefficients for Ps-He interactions for both the screened and unscreened cases, are reported.     

Comparative study of different initiation methods in the functionalization of low-density polyethylene with diethyl maleate: Gamma radiation and ultrasound

This work unfolds a comparative study of the grafting of a low-density polyethylene with diethyl maleate (DEM) using gamma irradiation and ultrasound as means of initiating the grafting reactions. The grafting degree was determined by FTIR using a reported calibration curve. The efficiency of both functionalization methodologies was calculated and the polymers were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The results showed that the grafting degree increases with the radiation dose when the monomer is inserted by gamma radiation. When the ultrasound methodology was used, an additional initiator such as dicumyl peroxide had to be used in order for the grafting to take place. In this last case, changing the time of exposure to the ultrasound source did not induce significant changes in the obtained grafted degree. The use of ultrasonic radiation plus dicumyl peroxide as grafting initiators promoted more insertion than that when gamma radiation was employed.     

Investigation of the Zn(p, 2p)Cu nuclear reaction: New measurements up to 40 MeV and compilation up to 100 MeV

The excitation function was measured for the ⁶⁸Zn(p, 2p)⁶⁷Cu nuclear reaction from its threshold energy up to 40 MeV. Nine pieces of highly enriched ⁶⁸Zn (>98%) metal foils were irradiated to obtain reliable cross-sections using the usual stacked-foil technique. All foils were subjected to high efficiency radiochemical separation before the activity measurements. A critical compilation of the available experimental cross-section results was also performed. Thick target yields of ⁶⁷Cu and the longer-lived copper radio-contaminants (⁶¹Cu and ⁶⁴Cu) were calculated using the reliable literature results up to 100 MeV. Additionally, EOB (End Of Bombardment) contamination levels as a function of bombarding energy and irradiation time were deduced.