Influence of wine-making protocol and fining agents on the evolution of the anthocyanin content,colour and general organoleptic quality of Vinhão wines

This paper reports the evolution, over two years, of the anthocyanin content, colour and organoleptic quality of red wines prepared from a single batch of Vinhão grapes by means of three different protocols (maceration/fermentation with conventional pumping-over or in rotary vats, and fermentation after initial carbonic maceration), with and without the use of four different fining agents (polyvinylpolypyrrolidine, gelatin, egg albumin, and casein). Carbonic maceration led to lower anthocyanin levels and less intense coloration than the other two methods immediately following vinification, but during storage the carbonic maceration wines underwent less colour degradation than the others, so that after two years the colour density differences among the three were negligible. Wines treated with fining agents tended to have somewhat lower anthocyanin levels and, especially in the case of PVPP, less intense colouration than untreated wines, and their colour was at best only marginally more stable during storage, but they nevertheless generally achieved higher panel ratings for organoleptic quality than untreated wines, especially as regards taste.     

Determination of phenolic compounds in wines: Influence of bottle storage of young red wines on their evolution

Various analytical methods based on the HPLC-DAD technique were used to determine 38 phenolic compounds in red wines. While anthocyanins and hydroxycinnamic acids were determined by direct injection of wine samples, hydroxybenzoic acids, catechins, procyanidins and flavonols required an analytical pretreatment involving liquid–liquid partitioning with ethyl ether followed by solid-phase extraction on C₁₈ mini-columns. The proposed analytical methods were used to establish the phenol composition of Mencía and Brancellao, two varietal young red wines, and its influence on colour stability during storage in bottles for one year. At the end of malolactic fermentation, Mencía wine was found to contain much greater amounts of anthocyan pigments than was Brancellao wine. This resulted in a higher colour density but a weaker hue in Mencía wine than in Brancellao wine. Phenolic compounds evolved similarly in both wines during storage; changes in such compounds involved a decrease in the levels of monomeric anthocyanins, phenolic acids, epicatechin and flavonols, and an increase in those of procyanidins. The absence of a relationship between the changes in colour density and monomeric anthocyanins in both wines suggests that copigmentation and polymerization with other phenolic compounds (viz. phenolic acids, catechins and/or flavonols) prevail over degradation of the pigments.     

Changes in phenolic composition of Tinta Miúda red wines after 2 years of ageing in bottle: effect of winemaking technologies

The major phenolic compounds (catechins, oligomeric and polymeric proanthocyanidins, and anthocyanins) in Tinta Miúda red wines made by various winemaking technologies (i.e., fermentation with carbonic maceration, fermentation with stem contact and fermentation without stem contact) were analyzed after 2 years of ageing in bottle, and compared with the data on their younger state (i.e., at the time of bottling). The concentrations of all individual phenolic compounds analyzed were significantly changed and their degradation rates (percent of decrease) were highly dependent on the winemaking technology used. The degradation of anthocyanins was, in general, more remarkable than that of catechins and proanthocyanidins. Catechins and proanthocyanidins in carbonic maceration wine appeared more stable than in skin fermentation wines, during ageing in bottle.     

Maintenance of Colour Composition of a Red Wine During Storage. Influence of Prefermentative Practices, Maceration Time and Storage

The effect of two different prefermentative treatments (the moment of SO₂addition and the use of fining agents), three different maceration times (4, 5 and 10 d), two different storage conditions and the length of storage on wine colour composition has been studied. The results show that the addition of SO₂at the moment of crushing, the use of the fining agent polyvinylpolypyrrolidone and long maceration times produced wines with a higher anthocyanin, ionised anthocyanins and polymeric compounds content, greater colour density, and an overall colour quality. Principal components analysis showed that the wines were mainly grouped according to their length of maceration and storage condition. After 12 mo of storage, wines elaborated with 10-d skin maceration were those with greatest colour quality.     

The impact of oxygen exposure before and after bottling on the polyphenolic composition of red wines

The impact of moderate oxygen exposure after bottling on wine phenolic composition and colour properties has been investigated on four Grenache red wines showing high and low phenolic contents, obtained by flash release (FR) and traditional soaking (Trad), respectively, and processed with (Mox, 4.6 mg l⁻¹ O₂) or without (noMox) micro-oxygenation. Four oxygen transfer rate (OTR) conditions (0.8, 1.9, 8.0, and 11.9 μl oxygen/bottle/day) were ensured by using synthetic closures with controlled oxygen permeability and storage under controlled atmosphere. Wine phenolic composition and colour were monitored by triplicate analysis of bottles sampled at bottling (T0) and after 5 and 10 months of ageing. Phenolic composition was determined by reverse-phase HPLC-DAD–MS analysis, performed directly on the wines and after phloroglucinolysis for proanthocyanidins. Colour was evaluated by UV–visible spectrophotometry and tristimulus colorimetry. At T0, FR wines contained larger amounts of catechins, proanthocyanidins and hydroxycinnamic acids and slightly lower amounts of anthocyanins than the Trad wines while the Mox wines showed higher levels of some derived pigments, especially carboxypyranoanthocyanins, resulting from reactions of anthocyanins with pyruvate. During ageing, a progressive decrease of proanthocyanidins and hydroxycinnamic acid concentrations was observed, independently of OTR. In contrast, the loss of free SO₂, flavan-3-ol monomers and the conversion rate of anthocyanins to new pigments, especially into sulphite bleaching resistant pigments, increased with OTR levels. Among derived pigments, carboxypyranoanthocyanins levels increased both with micro-oxygenation and with OTR and can be considered as oxidation markers while flavan-3-ol–anthocyanin adducts were formed in larger amounts with lower oxygen exposure.     

Effect of the prefermentative addition of copigments on the polyphenolic composition of Tempranillo wines after malolactic fermentation

The influence of the prefermentative addition of copigments and different winemaking technologies on the polyphenolic composition of Tempranillo red wines after malolactic fermentation was studied. Six experiments dealing with the prefermentative addition of caffeic acid, rutin, (+) catechin, white grape skin tannin, white grape seed tannin and control wines were realised. Three different winemaking technologies (traditional vinification, prefermentative cold maceration at 6–8 °C and cold soak at 0–2 °C with dry ice) were studied. Prefermentative addition of copigments increases anthocyanin copigmentation reactions and produces wines with a greater colour, a higher anthocyanin concentration, a superior contribution of anthocyanins to the colour of the wine, a superior percentage of tannins polymerised with polysaccharides and less astringency. Cold prefermentative maceration increases the extraction of polyphenols, the anthocyanin copigmentation reactions and the polymerisation reactions between tannins and polysaccharides. The effectiveness of the combination of copigments and prefermentative maceration treatments was demonstrated by the increase of the concentration of the polyphenolic compounds.     

Evolution of polyphenolic compounds in red wine from Cabernet Sauvignon grapes processed by pulsed electric fields during aging in bottle

The evolution of the Folin–Ciocalteu index, colour intensity and the principal individual polyphenols throughout 12 months of aging in bottles of red wine from Cabernet Sauvignon grapes treated and untreated by pulsed electric fields (PEF) have been compared. PEF technology allowed bottling of wines with higher Folin–Ciocalteu index, colour intensity and individual polyphenols concentrations using a shorter maceration time. For both wines, aging did not affect the colour intensity, whereas the Folin–Ciocalteu index decreased. The evolution of the principal individual polyphenols during the 12 months of storage followed a similar pattern in both wines. At the end of aging, there were no significant differences observed in the content of monomeric anthocyanins between both wines, however, the content of flavan-3-ols, flavonols and hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives was higher in PEF treated wine. These results indicate that PEF could be a suitable technology for obtaining wines with higher phenolic content or reducing the maceration time during vinification.     

Comparison between the phenolic composition of Petit Verdot wines elaborated at different maceration/fermentation temperatures

The objective of this work was to contribute to the knowledge of the relationship between phenolic composition and the temperature of maceration/fermentation on Petit Verdot red wines, which were made with three treatments (17°C, 21°C, and 25°C). The phenolic compounds of Vitis vinifera cv. Petit Verdot wines elaborated at different maceration/fermentation temperatures were determined and compared by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. A total of 45 phenolic compounds were detected in all wines. The phenolic composition was affected by the temperature of maceration. The increment of maceration/fermentation temperature had a positive effect on the total concentration of the phenolic compounds and chromatic characteristics of these wines. The colour of Petit Verdot young red wines showed more colour intensity and their luminosity descended due to the increase in temperature. The highest total content of anthocyanins was determined in wines macerated at 21°C. However, other groups of phenolic compounds (flavonols, proanthocyanidins, and stilbenes) increased their total content by raising the maceration/fermentation temperature, reaching maximum values at 25°C.     

Development of seed polyphenols in berries from Vitis vinifera L. cv. Shiraz

Polyphenols extracted from the seeds of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Shiraz berries were monitored during berry development. Initially seeds were green, plump and had pliable seed coats, but beginning at veraison the seeds browned in colour, became desiccated and the seed coats hardened. Isolated polyphenols consisted of flavan-3-of monomers ((+)-catechin, (-)-epicatechin and (-)-epicatechin-3-O-gallate) and procyanidins. The procyanidins were maximal in the 3 weeks prior to veraison, increasing little during this period. The amounts of flavan-3-ol monomers increased 5-fold during this same period of time, indicating that the procyanidins and the flavan-3-ol monomers accumulate at different stages. Beginning at veraison, amounts of all polyphenols declined and changed in composition. The decrease in amount followed second-order kinetics. Polyphenol changes after veraison could be explained by oxidation and therefore, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy was used to follow the potential development of radical species in the developing seeds. Spectra consistent with a phenoxyl radical were observed in the developing seeds. The concentration of radicals remained low until veraison but then increased, reaching a maximum three weeks later, declining slowly thereafter. Changes in radical intensity together with other documented changes in the seed are consistent with an oxidative event occurring during fruit ripening.     

Impact of various maceration techniques on the phenolic and volatile composition of Chenin Blanc wines

Chenin Blanc, cultivated in cool climate regions, was chosen to evaluate the impact of different maceration techniques on polyphenolic profiles and volatile compounds. Control with no skin contact (CK), cold maceration (CM), cryogenic maceration (CR), separate fermentation before blending (SFB) and extended skin contact during fermentation (ESF) were the five maceration techniques being studied. SFB and ESF techniques resulted in significantly increased polyphenolic compounds compared to the control (P < 0.05), while CM and CR maceration techniques resulted in almost no effect. Meanwhile, for aromatic components, the maximum change was observed in ESF wine, which had significantly highest levels of terpenes, alcohols, esters and acids. However, compared with control wine, CR wine had higher levels of terpenes and esters and SFB wine had higher levels of terpenes and alcohols. This study provides information about prefermentation techniques and additional options for oenologists to produce Chenin Blanc wines with different characteristics.     

Effect of a cold‐active pectinolytic system on colour development of Malbec red wines elaborated at low temperature

The effect of a new cold‐active pectinolytic system on colour of Malbec wines was studied under the following winemaking conditions: (i) fermentation at low temperature (20 °C) and (ii) prefermentative cold maceration (PCM) (5 °C–7 days) followed by traditional fermentation (28 °C). The pectinolytic system was mainly composed of polymethylgalacturonase and pectin lyase activities, detected under similar conditions to those in winemaking (pH 3.6–20 °C). The results show that the enzyme system significantly accelerated colour extraction by reducing the maceration time necessary for vinification at low temperature and shortening the PCM stage. Enzyme‐treated wines exhibited better chromatic parameters than their controls at devatting and after 6 months of storage. The cold‐active enzyme compensated the decrease in colour extraction due to the low maceration temperature, achieving high‐quality wines with chromatic characteristics similar to those of traditional wines.     

Colour features and pigment composition of Italian carbonic macerated red wines

Thirty commercially available Italian carbonic macerated young red wines, have been analysed by HPLC–DAD–MS with the aim to characterise their pigment composition and find possible correlations with the colour features evaluated by means of spectrophotometric measurements. The composition in anthocyanin monoglucosides, acetates, p-coumarates as well as that in pyranoanthocyanins and direct and ethyl-bridged adducts with flavanols, was studied. Because of the peculiar maceration process, carbonic macerated wines demonstrated to be qualitatively rich in pyranoanthocyanins and pigment adducts. A number of ethyl-bridged anthocyanin isomers was found, together with significant contents of vitisin A and vitisin B (up to 15.5 mg/L as a sum). Malvidin-3-glc-4-vinylphenol was the main pyranoanthocyanin-vinylphenol adduct (up to 1.10 mg/L). The colour features of the wines were broadly distributed as a consequence of the percentage of carbonic macerated wine present in the marketed product. The statistical treatment of the entire data set revealed that pyranoanthocyanins are positively correlated with colour density (while no correlation was found for monoglucosides) and that direct adducts and/or ethyl-bridged compounds can play a role for what concerns the hue of carbonic macerated wines.     

The influence of pectolytic enzyme addition and prefermentative mash heating during the winemaking process on the phenolic composition of Okuzgozu red wine

The effects of pectolytic enzyme addition and mash heating prior to fermentation on the phenolic component of Okuzgozu red wine during the winemaking and ageing processes were investigated. In general, the highest concentration of total phenolics was found in the mash-heated wines, whereas the total flavan-3-ol and total anthocyanin contents in all of the wines, decreased notably during the winemaking and ageing processes. As determined by HPLC, hydroxycinnamic acids were the major phenolic acids in the red wines. After 6 months in the bottle, the enzyme-treated wines had lower phenolic acid concentrations than had the control and mash-heated wines, but no significant (p < 0.05) differences were found in the concentration of total phenolic acids between the control and mash-heated wines. All of the phenolic acid levels decreased with the winemaking and ageing processes whereas only gallic acid increased. The wines treated by the pectolytic enzyme addition had a lower monomeric flavan-3-ol content than had the other wines, and the amount of monomeric anthocyanins extracted did not increase with the addition of enzymes.     

二氧化碳浸渍法在蓝莓酒酿造中的应用

利用二氧化碳浸渍法酿造蓝莓酒,对比二氧化碳浸渍法和传统酿造法酿造的蓝莓酒在各理化指标方面的不同,探究该方法对蓝莓酒品质的影响。同时利用高效液相色谱法（HPLC）测定CO2不同浸渍时间对于蓝莓酒中10种有机酸酸、9种酚酸含量的影响。结果表明,蓝莓酒中含量最高的有机酸是柠檬酸,最主要的酚酸是绿原酸;二氧化碳浸渍法相比于传统酿造法能够降低蓝莓酒的酸度（P＜0.05）,但浸渍时间越长,有机酸含量越高;二氧化碳浸渍法蓝莓酒总酚含量低于传统法（P＜0.05）,但能提高总黄酮和酚酸类物质的浸出。     

Polyphenolic content of Vranec wines produced by different vinification conditions

Macedonian Vranec wines were analysed by HPLC coupled with DAD and MS detections and by spectrophotometric methods. ESI-IT MS and MS–MS methods with alternating ionisation polarity were used for identification of the phenolic compounds. Both, nonflavonoids (stilbens, hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives) and flavonoids (flavonols, flavan-3-ols and anthocyanins) were detected in the samples. Vranec wines were produced under different fermentation conditions: maceration time of 3, 6 and 10 days, two doses of SO₂ (30 and 70 mg l⁻¹) and two yeasts for fermentation, in order to examine their effects on the extraction of phenolic compounds from grapes into the wine.     

Effects of pre-fermentation enzyme maceration on extraction and colour stability in Pinot Noir wine

Effects of pre-fermentation enzyme maceration on anthocyanins, phenolics, colour and colour parameters were investigated in Pinot Noir ( Vitis vinifera L.) wines made from musts that were macerated for 12 hours at 20°C with a commercial enzyme preparation, Rohapect VR-C (Rohm, Darmstadt, Germany), with and without additions of SO₂. Anthocyanins and phenolics were determined by spectrophotometric and HPLC methods. Standard triplicate microvinifications were conducted in glass vessels. Extraction of anthocyanins was not increased by enzyme treatment. However, wines produced by enzyme maceration had increased visible colour intensity, colour density and polymeric pigment formation. By the end of fermentation, enzyme-treated wines had more polymeric pigment, and less monomeric anthocyanins than non-enzyme-treated wines. The wines were bottled, stored at 12°C and sampled at three, six, eight and 18 months after bottling. Over 18 months, differences between the treatments were maintained. The promotion of the formation of polymeric pigments in enzyme-treated wines continued after the wines were bottled, and the greater content of polymeric pigment led to greater colour density in the enzyme-treated wines. The promotion of polymeric pigment formation in wines by macerating enzyme treatment of the must may be due to the breakdown of protective polysaccharide-protein colloids by hemicellulase and protease activities in the enzyme preparation.     

Influence of variety and commercial yeast preparation on red wine made from autochthonous Hungarian and Canadian grapes. Part I: phenolic composition

Eight wines were made from two Canadian hybrid grape varieties (Maréchal Foch, Baco Noir) and two Hungarian Vitis vinifera varieties (Kadarka, Lemberger). One half was kept untreated; the other half received a commercial yeast preparation (OptiRed^®) before fermentation. Significant differences were found between varieties for basic measures of wine quality, including pH, titratable acidity, ethanol, colour density, hue and total phenolics. Quercetin was identified only in Maréchal Foch and Baco Noir wines, and quercetin-glucoside only in Baco Noir. Varietal differences were also found in the concentrations of the 11 other colourless phenolic monomers measured, especially gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, tyrosol, caftaric acid, catechin, caffeic acid, GRP, epicatechin, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid and trans-resveratrol. The Canadian wines had higher concentrations of the four anthocyanins measured (malvidin, delphinidin, petunidin and peonidin), higher anti-oxidative capacity, and were characterised by lower ratios of monomeric/polymeric phenolics. Addition of OptiRed^® had little impact on the basic measures of wine quality. Concentrations of gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, caftaric acid and catechin were, on average, 6% higher in wines made from OptiRed^®-treated musts. A trend was observed for all varieties in OptiRed^®-treated wines of a greater proportion of the procyanidins being presented as polymeric rather than monomeric phenolics.     

Impact of maceration time on colour‐related phenolics,sensory characteristics and volatile composition of mulberry wine

This study investigated the effect of maceration treatment on colour‐related phenolics, sensory characteristics and volatile composition in mulberry wine. Pre‐fermentation maceration was performed for 2 days (‘short’), 6 days (‘medium’) and 8 days (‘long’), respectively, followed by the same fermentation process. Results showed that the long maceration (LM) caused higher level of anthocyanins in wine, especially cyaniding‐3‐O‐rutinoside, cyaniding‐3‐O‐glucoside and dephinidin‐3‐O‐glucoside, whereas the short maceration caused lower level of phenolic acids in wine. The medium maceration (MM) wine showed the highest level of flavonols but the lowest concentration of flavan‐3‐ol. The LM wine exhibited greater red tone and colour intensity accompanied by higher amounts of free and copigmented anthocyanins. The LM wine showed lower levels of alcohols, acids, terpenoids, benzenes and sulphur compounds, whereas the lowest level of esters was found in the MM wine. The LM wine had reduced fruity and floral aroma and overall flavour complexity compared with the other wines. Copyright © 2018 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

CO2浸渍法酿造两性花毛葡萄NW196葡萄酒的研究

为研究CO2浸渍法对两性花毛葡萄NW196葡萄酒品质的影响,试验采用高效液相色谱等方法测定了传统工艺和CO2浸渍工艺酿造的NW196葡萄酒中化学成分的含量.结果表明,和传统工艺相比,CO2浸渍工艺酿造的NW196葡萄酒中总酸、单宁、花色素苷和主要单体酚等成分的含量较低,这为改善该葡萄酒品质提供了新的思路.