Finite element modeling of hydrogen atom diffusion and distribution at corrosion defect on aged pipelines transporting hydrogen

Repurposing existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transport has attracted wide interests. However, the corrosion defect present on these aged pipelines can affect hydrogen (H) atom accumulation, potentially causing hydrogen embrittlement. In this work, a finite element-based model was developed by coupling solid mechanics and H atom diffusion to investigate the distribution of H atoms at a corrosion defect on a steel pipe segment under applied longitudinal tensile strains. The applied strain causes local stress (both Mises stress and hydrostatic stress) and strain concentrations at the corrosion defect, affecting the H atom diffusion and distribution. In the absence of the tensile strain, the H atoms, once entering the interior of pipe, diffuse uniformly into the pipe body along the radial direction driven by a concentration gradient. When a strain is applied on the pipe, the H atom diffusion is driven by hydrostatic stress. The maximum H atom concentration exceeds the initial concentration of H atoms entering the steel pipe, indicating the H atom accumulation at the corrosion defect. The applied tensile strain also affects the location where the H atoms accumulate. For both internal and external corrosion defects, more H atoms will be concentrated at the defect center when the defect length reduces and the depth increases.     

Prediction of the failure pressure for complex corrosion defects

A new method for predicting the failure pressure of corrosion defects in pipelines has been developed. The failure pressure of a plain pipe represents an upper limit for the failure pressure of a pipe with a corrosion defect. The failure pressure of a uniform depth, infinitely long groove, where the depth is equal to the maximum depth of the corrosion defect, represents a lower limit for the failure pressure of a pipe with a natural corrosion defect. The predicted failure pressure can be calculated from these limits using the weighted depth difference (WDD) method, which accounts for the defect geometry and any interaction with adjacent defects. The WDD method has been validated using the results of 40 burst tests of pipe sections containing real corrosion defects. The results indicate that this method provides more accurate burst pressure predictions than the currently accepted corrosion defect assessment procedures.     

承压类压力管道钢管检验技术分析

随着社会经济的发展,中国的管道运输业得到了蓬勃发展,但是由于管线的增多、管龄的增长、腐蚀、磨损等自然或人为损坏等原因,承压管道泄漏事故及爆炸事故频频发生。论述了石油化工压力管道无缝钢管在使过程中质量检验的重要性,叙述了常见的缺陷形式、检验项目和检验方法。     

复杂载荷作用下立管触地段损伤管道极限内压承载力的数值分析

触地段(TDZ)为在役钢悬链线立管(SCR)的关键部位之一,由于环境侵蚀和载荷作用可能形成损伤缺陷。利用有限单元法建立管—土相互作用的三维有限元分析模型,并基于ABAQUS有限元软件数值分析了体积损伤位置因素及提升端位移载荷、环境外压等载荷因素对损伤管道极限内压承载力的影响。结果表明,当体积损伤分布于TDZ管道不同的环向位置和轴向位置时,其极限内压呈一定的变化规律;当管道所受提升端位移载荷增加时,管道的极限内压逐渐降低;而环境外压对管道的极限内压承载力影响较大,管道所受的环境外压越大,其极限内压承载力越高。     

Piping issues in nuclear systems in the USA

Issues dealing with major problems of piping for nuclear reactor systems are discussed. Plans for implementation of the USNRC Piping Review Committee recommendations on resolving the intergranular stress corrosion cracking problem in boiling water reactors are detailed, including alternative acceptable mitigative actions and guidelines for crack evaluation and repairs. The problem of pipe wall thinning due to erosion-corrosion, highlighted by a major pipe break in the Surry Power Station, is described.     

Effects of thermal oxi-nitridation on the corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity of 446M stainless steel for PEMFC bipolar plates

Stainless steel has attracted interest as a bipolar plate material for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells due to its excellent mechanical properties, good corrosion resistance, and low cost. However, the application of thermal nitridation for the improvement of electrical conductivity deteriorates the corrosion resistance under PEMFC operating conditions due to the discontinuous formation of external Cr-nitride. In this study, nitridation with pre-oxidation of 446M stainless steel was performed in order to improve both the corrosion resistance and the electrical conductivity. 446M stainless steels with oxide and nitride on the surface were evaluated to assess their feasibility as a bipolar plate material for PEMFCs. The results were compared with those obtained using as-received and only nitrided 446M stainless steels. The oxide formed by the pre-oxidation protects the surface of 446M stainless steel from corrosion in corrosive environments, especially under cathode conditions, and the Cr-nitride formed by the subsequent nitridation serves as an electro-conductive channel. As a result, the pre-oxidized, nitrided 446M stainless steel exhibits improved corrosion properties and electrical conductivity under PEMFC operating environments.     

Assessment of the flexural capacity of corroded steel pipes

Flexural capacity of corroded pipes can be determined analytically assuming a full plastic failure mode for the pipe. A set of generalized solutions for flexural capacity of the pipe can be developed if the shape of the corrosion is known a priori. The generalized solutions derived in this paper are able to account for the simultaneous action of internal pressure and axial force. For practical purposes, the generalized solutions thus derived are simplified into approximate closed-form equations using three idealized corrosion shapes, namely, constant-depth, elliptical, and parabolic corrosions. Numerical examples indicate that the closed-form approximate solutions provide good comparison with the generalized solutions. The closed-form approximate solutions are subsequently compared to experimental results from full-size tests of pipes with different corrosion depth and width. Parameter study conducted as part of this paper indicates that the shape of a corrosion defect has significant influence on the flexural capacity of the corroded pipes.     

Hydrogen effect on phase angle shift in electrochemical impedance spectroscopy during corrosion fatigue crack emanation

It is generally considered that hydrogen could accelerate the corrosion fatigue process, however, the effective monitoring approach for the corrosion fatigue development in the hydrogen related environment is still missing. In this work, the hydrogen effect on phase angle shifts in electrochemical impedance spectroscopy during corrosion fatigue crack formation in drill pipe steel was in-situ studied. The results show that phase angle shifts as a function of time could be used to monitor the corrosion fatigue development in the presence of hydrogen. The permeated hydrogen leads to a lower peak intensity and shifts the peak to a higher frequency on the phase angle vs. frequency curve. These differences are due to the formation of a corrosion fatigue crack with a shorter length than in the absence of hydrogen. The phase angle shift reveals that the presence of hydrogen results in shortening crack initiation time and corrosion fatigue life of the drill pipe steel.     

Measurement of the residual stresses in a stainless steel pipe girth weld containing long and short repairs

A series of residual measurements were made to obtain the through-thickness residual stress profiles in an as-welded and repair welded stainless steel pipe. Long and short length repairs were manufactured after initial measurements in the original girth weld. Measurements were made using neutron diffraction, deep hole and surface hole techniques. The various measurement methods were found to complement each other well. All the measurements revealed a characteristic profile for the through-thickness distribution of the residual stresses in the heat-affected zone. The residual stresses at mid-length of the heat affected zone of the short repair were found to be higher than in the long repair.     

Failure pressure of straight pipe with wall thinning under internal pressure

The failure pressure of pipe with wall thinning was investigated by using three-dimensional elastic–plastic finite element analyses (FEA). With careful modeling of the pipe and flaw geometry in addition to a proper stress–strain relation of the material, FEA could estimate the precise burst pressure obtained by the tests. FEA was conducted by assuming three kinds of materials: line pipe steel, carbon steel, and stainless steel. The failure pressure obtained using line pipe steel was the lowest under the same flaw size condition, when the failure pressure was normalized by the value of unflawed pipe defined using the flow stress. On the other hand, when the failure pressure was normalized by the results of FEA obtained for unflawed pipe under various flaw and pipe configurations, the failure pressures of carbon steel and line pipe steel were almost the same and lower than that of stainless steel. This suggests that the existing assessment criteria developed for line pipe steel can be applied to make a conservative assessment of carbon steel and stainless steel.     

Reliability assessment of underground pipelines under the combined effect of active corrosion and residual stress

Lifetime management of underground pipelines is mandatory for safe hydrocarbon transmission and distribution systems. Reliability analysis is recognized as a powerful decision-making tool for risk-based design and maintenance. Both the residual stresses generated during the manufacturing process and in-service corrosion reduce the ability to resist internal and external loading. In this study, the residual stress distribution in large diameter pipes has been characterized experimentally in order to be coupled with the corrosion model. During the pipe lifetime, residual stress relaxation occurs due to the loss of pipe thickness as material layers are consumed by corrosion. The reliability-based assessment of residual stress effects is applied to underground pipelines under a roadway, with and without active corrosion. It has been found that the residual stress greatly increases the failure probability, especially in the early stage of the pipe lifetime.     

一种新型组合套管式地下埋管的承载特性分析

提出了一种新型组合套管式地下埋管并对之进行了初步的承载能力与工作性状分析,分析显示本文的新型组合套管式地下埋管可以充分发挥钢管的抗拉作用和混凝土衬砌的抗压作用,极大地提高了结构的抗外压能力,且节省材料,便于施工。     

Residual stresses in girth butt welded pipes and treatments to modify these

A number of Type 304 stainless steel pipes are used in the primary cooling systems of nuclear plants. Intergranular stress corrosion cracks (IGSCC) were found at some welded joints in these piping systems due to very high tensile residual stress, sensitization of the material due to welding, and corrosive environment, all occurring simultaneously. Investigations have shown that at least one of the above factors must be eliminated to prevent IGSCC.

This report describes experimental results on the temperature variations during pipe welding by conventional techniques and by the heat sink welding (HSW) technique. The mechanism of residual stress generation due to welding is also discussed. The pipe used in these experiments was 4B Sch80 Type 304 stainless steel. It was found that the temperature distribution through the thickness of the pipes was almost uniform for the conventional welding technique, but had a very sharp gradient for HSW. In the pipe axial direction, the temperatures varied sharply for both welding techniques. This implies that the sensitization of metal due to HSW is lighter than that of conventional welding and that the residual stress on the inside surface of the heat sink welded pipe is compressive.

The induction heating stress improvement (IHSI) method has been investigated analytically and experimentally. In the IHSI method, a pipe is heated with an induction coil while cold water is pumped through it. This causes a temperature gradient throughout the pipe wall which generates high thermal stresses. This, in turn, generates compressive stresses on the inner surface of the pipe. This method is designed to eliminate tensile residual stresses near the weld heat affected zone on the inner surface.

Temperature analysis and subsequent thermoelastic-plastic analysis show that tensile weld residual stresses at a joint were changed into compressive stresses on the inner surface of a pipe. It was confirmed experimentally that these stresses suppressed fatigue crack propagation in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of a welded pipe. Therefore, the IHSI method is effective not only in preventing crack initiation but also in suppressing crack propagation.

As for the relaxation of residual stresses, no significant relaxation was measured when external loads were applied at as much as 80% of the yield strength in the experiments.     

Evaluation of material degradation in in-service high temperature structural component by a chemical etching test

An etching test using a picric acid solution with a wetting agent was found to have great potential for the nondestructive evaluation of grain boundary embrittlement caused by phosphorus segregation in both CrMo and CrMoV steels, and by carbide or sigma phase precipitation in austenitic stainless steel. A line pipe (CrMo) and a steam turbine rotor (CrMoV) were tested on-site to demonstrate whether the etching test would be a useful tool. The ΔFATT value estimated by the etching test agreed reasonably well with the ΔFATT determined by an electrochemical method for the turbine rotor steel. A good correlation was found between the degree of intergranular corrosion and the material deterioration of SUS316 stainless steel used as a superheater of a fossil fuel boiler.     

Allowable defect sizes in a sour crude oil pipeline for corrosion fatigue conditions

A fracture mechanics treatment of corrosion fatigue crack growth rates is used to estimate corrosion fatigue life and allowable defect depths for specified lives of sour crude oil pipelines.The present study is based on a case history of a major Canadian crude oil pipeline that experienced five fatigue failures during its first 10 years of operation. Characteristic pressure fluctuation spectra have been derived from pump stations' pressure records. Fatigue crack growth rates for various crack configurations and orientations, and the effects of environment (crude oil with hydrogen sulphide content from zero to saturation) on these have been measured in the laboratory.Calculated fatigue lives have been verified by full-scale pipe tests pressurized with crude oil containing 100 ppm of hydrogen sulphide, using the characteristic pressure spectrum simulating operating conditions.     

Status of stainless steel pipe inspection in the US

This paper summarizes recent progress made in the inspection of stainless steel piping. Topics covered include the training of personnel for both detection and sizing of intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) found in Boiling Water Reactor piping. The inspection of the weld overlay used to repair pipe joints with IGSCC and inspection of centrifugally cast stainless steel pipe is also addressed. A summary of advanced systems that have satisfied the NRC performance demonstration requirements is also given.     

Propagation behaviour of general and localised corrosion of carbon steel in simulated groundwater under aerobic conditions

Abstract

Carbon steel is one of the candidate overpack materials for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste in Japan. Corrosion of carbon steel is classified into two types: general corrosion and localised corrosion. In this study, propagation of general and localised corrosion (pitting corrosion and crevice corrosion) were investigated by immersion tests of carbon steel under the aerobic conditions. The results of the immersion tests showed that the corrosion growth rate was strongly dependent on the environmental conditions and type of steel. However, the upper limit of the pitting factor, the ratio between the maximum corrosion depth and the average corrosion depth, was determined approximately using only average corrosion depth. Based on the experimental and literature data, an empirical model that predicts the maximum corrosion depth of an overpack from average corrosion depth was developed by applying the extreme value statistical analysis using the Gumbel distribution function.     

Corrosion of lined steel pressure equipment in aqueous H2SO4 service in a water treatment plant

This paper details corrosion that occurred in two identical process pressure vessels during the first 4 years of operation. Corrosion occurred at branch nozzles, shell sections and structural attachments, which resulted in unplanned shutdowns and subsequent repairs. In situ vessel modifications were completed in order to reduce the number and frequency of corrosion sites. Design and fabrication considerations that should be assessed in detail during the initial design phase are presented. Issues that can increase the shutdown frequency while decreasing availability and the inspection interval are discussed. Recommendations are made that are intended to alert designers, fabricators, owner/operators and inspectors to fundamental issues associated with lined steel pressure equipment to be considered where such equipment is proposed in a corrosive process environment.     

System reliability of corroding pipelines

A methodology is presented in this paper to evaluate the time-dependent system reliability of a pipeline segment that contains multiple active corrosion defects and is subjected to stochastic internal pressure loading. The pipeline segment is modeled as a series system with three distinctive failure modes due to corrosion, namely small leak, large leak and rupture. The internal pressure is characterized as a simple discrete stochastic process that consists of a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables each acting over a period of one year. The magnitude of a given sequence follows the annual maximum pressure distribution. The methodology is illustrated through a hypothetical example. Furthermore, the impact of the spatial variability of the pressure loading and pipe resistances associated with different defects on the system reliability is investigated. The analysis results suggest that the spatial variability of pipe properties has a negligible impact on the system reliability. On the other hand, the spatial variability of the internal pressure, initial defect sizes and defect growth rates can have a significant impact on the system reliability.     

Estimating structural integrity,using the TPFC approach,of annealed type 304 stainless steel plate and pipes containing surface defects

Test results and an evaluation of the two-parameter fracture criterion (TPFC) are presented. The tests were conducted at room temperature with annealed Type 304 stainless steel flat-plate tensile specimens containing triangular-, ellipsoidal- or rectangular-shaped surface flaws, and pressurised pipe specimens with internal or external triangular-shaped surface defects. Generally accepted analytical techniques are not available for these and other very ductile materials used in many nuclear reactor components and an accurate assessment of the influence of defects on structural component integrity is needed.The TPFC approach was used in conjunction with the initial defect size and the loads required for the initiation of subcritical crack growth, for penetration through the wall thickness and for instability. Generally, the test results obtained from the flat specimens could be used to predict, from a conservative point of view, the behaviour of pipe specimens. Since $\text{K}{}_{\mathrm{<mtext>F</mtext>}}$ is thickness dependent, it is recommended that tests be conducted for the specific thickness of concern using specimens containing surface defects. The TPFC approach can provide an accurate means for predicting structural integrity.