An experimental and numerical investigation on torsional strengthening of solid and box-section RC beams using CFRP laminates

The issue of maintenance and repair/upgrading of existing structures has become a major issue, particularly extending the service lifespan of bridges. Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) has shown great promise as a state-of-the-art material in flexural and shear strengthening as external reinforcement. However, little attention has been paid to torsional strengthening in terms of both experimental and numerical research. This paper reports the experimental work in an overall investigation of torsional strengthening of solid and box-section reinforced concrete beams with externally-bonded CFRP. This was found to be a viable method of torsional strengthening. Numerical work was carried out using non-linear finite element (FE) modelling. Good agreement in terms of torque–twist behaviour, steel and CFRP reinforcement responses, and crack patterns was achieved. The unique failure modes of all the specimens were modelled correctly as well.     

Fatigue behaviour of CFRP L-shaped plates for shear strengthening of RC T-beams

Prefabricated carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) L-shaped plates can be used to shear strengthen reinforced concrete (RC) T-beams. Previous investigations by EMPA have shown the suitability of the CFRP L-shaped plates for static shear strengthening.In this paper, a large-scale fatigue test is presented which demonstrated the suitability of the CFRP L-shaped plates for shear strengthening of RC T-beams for fatigue reasons. The test beam was subjected to 5 million load cycles at a high load level and a subsequent failure test. Its behaviour is compared with that of a similar, statically tested beam. A fatigue design proposal is presented for users of the CFRP L-shaped plates.     

Mechanical behaviour of corroded RC beams strengthened by NSM CFRP rods

Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete leads to several major defects. Firstly, a reduction in the cross-sectional area of the reinforcement and in its ductility results in premature bar failure. Secondly, the expansion of the corrosion products causes concrete cracking and steel–concrete bond deterioration and also affects the bending stiffness of the reinforced concrete members, causing a reduction in the overall load-bearing capacity of the reinforced concrete beams. This paper investigates the validity of a repair technique using Near Surface Mounted (NSM) carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) rods to restore the mechanical performance of corrosion-damaged RC beams. In the NSM technique, the CFRP rods are placed inside pre-cut grooves and are bonded to the concrete with epoxy adhesive.Experimental results were obtained on two beams: a corroded beam that had been exposed to natural corrosion for 25 years and a control beam, (both are 3 m long) repaired in bending only. Each beam was repaired with one 6-mm-diameter NSM CFRP rod. The beams were tested in a three-point bending test up to failure. Overall stiffness and crack maps were studied before and after the repair. Ultimate capacity, ductility and failure mode were also reviewed. Finally some comparisons were made between repaired and non-repaired beams in order to assess the effectiveness of the NSM technique. The experimental results showed that the NSM technique improved the overall characteristics (ultimate load capacity and stiffness) of the control and corroded beams and allowed sufficient ductility to be restored to the repaired corroded elements, thus restoring the safety margin, despite the non-classical mode of failure that occurred in the corroded beam, with the separation of the concrete cover due to corrosion products.     

Transfer zone of prestressed CFRP reinforcement applied according to NSM technique for strengthening of RC structures

This study presents an experimental program to assess the tensile strain distribution along prestressed carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) reinforcement flexurally applied on the tensile surface of RC beams according to near surface mounted (NSM) technique. Moreover, the current study aims to propose an analytical formulation, with a design framework, for the prediction of distribution of CFRP tensile strain and bond shear stress and, additionally, the prestress transfer length. After demonstration the good predictive performance of the proposed analytical approach, parametric studies were carried out to analytically evaluate the influence of the main material properties, and CFRP and groove cross section on the distribution of the CFRP tensile strain and bond shear stress, and on the prestress transfer length. The proposed analytical approach can also predict the evolution of the prestress transfer length during the curing time of the adhesive by considering the variation of its elasticity modulus during this period.     

Improved model for plate-end shear of CFRP strengthened RC beams

In case of RC members strengthened by means of externally bonded reinforcement, a premature failure can be detected in addition to the conventional modes of failure observed in RC unstrengthened beams. The premature failure occurs mainly due to both shear and normal stresses induced in either the external reinforcement–concrete interface or at the level of steel reinforcement. This research is part of a complete programme aiming to set up design formulae to predict the strength of CFRP strengthened beams, particularly when premature failure through laminates-end shear or concrete cover delamination occurs. Series of RC beams were strengthened with carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) laminates and tested to estimate the extent of the applicability of the formulae proposed by the authors, as well as to study the influence of the layout of the external reinforcement in terms of unsheeted length (the distance between CFRP laminates-end and the nearer support) and cross-sectional area, on the behaviour of strengthened beams. The predictions using the proposed formulae are compared with the obtained experimental results, as well as with the calculated design limit states. The interfacial shear stress and the maximum deflection corresponding to the predicted values at maximum and service loads are also studied.     

碳纤维布加固混凝土梁弯曲性能的试验研究

通过对4根矩形截面钢筋混凝土梁的静力加载试验,研究了碳纤维布对抗弯加固梁的破坏形态、刚度变化、极限承载力、变形能力和裂缝开展情况的影响,分析了碳纤维布粘贴层数和加固梁是否欲裂对碳纤维加固效果的影响.结果表明:碳纤维布可明显增强加固梁的极限承载力,改变加固梁的破坏形态,改善延性,延缓裂缝的发展,提高加固梁的整体刚度;同时碳纤维布粘贴层数越多,加固梁的极限承载力越大,但其提高程度并不与粘贴层数成正比;加固预裂梁后其极限承载力明显提高,但其延性降低.最后,针对现有的规范及理论研究结果,提出了抗弯加固梁的极限承载力计算公式,理论计算结果与试验值符合较好,满足工程实际要求.     

Near surface mounted CFRP laminates for shear strengthening of concrete beams

A Near Surface Mounted (NSM) strengthening technique was developed to increase the shear resistance of concrete beams. The NSM technique is based on fixing, by epoxy adhesive, Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) laminates into pre-cut slits opened in the concrete cover of lateral surfaces of the beams. To assess the efficacy of this technique, an experimental program of four-point bending tests was carried out with reinforced concrete beams failing in shear. Each of the four tested series was composed of five beams: without any shear reinforcement; reinforced with steel stirrups; strengthened with strips of wet lay-up CFRP sheets, applied according to the externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) technique; and two beams strengthened with NSM precured laminates of CFRP, one of them with laminates positioned at 90° and the other with laminates positioned at 45° in relation to the beam axis. Influences of the laminate inclination, beam depth and longitudinal tensile steel reinforcement ratio on the efficacy of the strengthening techniques were analyzed. Amongst the CFRP strengthening techniques, the NSM with laminates at 45° was the most effective, not only in terms of increasing beam shear resistance but also in assuring larger deformation capacity at beam failure. The NSM was also faster and easier to apply than the EBR technique. The performance of the ACI and fib analytical formulations for the EBR shear strengthening was appraised. In general, the contribution of the CFRP systems predicted by the analytical formulations was slightly larger than the values registered experimentally. Performance of the formulation by Nanni et al. for NSM strengthening technique was also appraised. Using bond stress and CFRP effective strain values obtained in pullout bending tests with NSM CFRP laminate system, the formulation by Nanni et al. predicted a contribution of this CFRP system for the beam shear resistance of 72% the experimentally recorded values.     

Assessment of CFRP strengthened RC beams through dynamic tests

The use of Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) for strengthening damaged RC beams has become common practice over recent years. Two methods adopted for repairing or strengthening such beams are FRP plates/sheets glued onto their concrete surface and FRP rods or strips inserted into grooves.This paper investigates experimental vibration monitoring of strengthening according to the two aforementioned methods through dynamic tests on six RC beam models strengthened using carbon FRP. Three beams were strengthened applying CFRP sheets on the tensile cracked surface after loading and three beams were strengthened by near surface mounted (NSM) CFRP rods. The experimental results include both the static tests to create damage and the dynamic tests of strengthened, measuring natural vibration modes and frequency values for free end beams.Comparison between experimental dynamic response and static behavior established that vibration monitoring is a convenient, non-destructive method for assessing strengthened beams under service loads. Further studies and tests must be developed in order to solve the issues that emerged following the analysis of the experimental data obtained.     

钢筋锈蚀再生混凝土梁刚度退化规律及计算方法研究

为探究锈蚀-疲劳耦合作用下钢筋混凝土梁的结构力学行为及刚度退化规律,设计了3组不同应力幅作用的钢筋混凝土梁锈蚀-疲劳耦合持荷试验,分析了各试验梁的疲劳寿命及刚度演化规律。结果表明,钢筋、混凝土疲劳和钢筋的锈蚀耦合作用下,钢筋混凝土构件的疲劳寿命显著降低,疲劳梁和锈蚀疲劳耦合梁的挠度发展曲线均呈现“突增-稳定-突增”的变化规律,且锈蚀疲劳耦合梁在第二阶段的挠度发展速率要远大于同应力幅下的疲劳加载梁。该方法在既有规范基础上分别改进了现有疲劳梁和锈蚀疲劳耦合作用下结构的挠度计算方法,可以有效考虑钢筋疲劳作用、外荷载应力幅、混凝土模量退化、钢筋锈蚀等因素的影响,其计算值与试验值吻合较好,验证了该文提出的刚度计算模型的有效性。     

Bond characteristics of corrding reinforcement in concrete beams

The results of an experimental study of the bond characteristics of reinforced concrete beams subjected to reinforcement corrosion are presented. Beam specimens recommended by the joint RILEM/CEB/FIP Committee were used, which comprised two halves of a reinforced concrete beam rotating about a hinge mechanism. Corrosion was induced at different levels of rebar diameter loss: 0, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 1, 2 and 5 percent by impressing direct current of intensity 0.8 and 2.4 mA/cm². The specimens were tested under four point bending to induce bond failure and load-free end slip curves were plotted. The tests showed that at up to 0.4% degree of corrosion, no free-end slip occurred in the reinforcement bars until complete breakdown of bond at failure. At higher degrees of reinforcement corrosion, free-end slip commenced immediately upon application of load and increased linearly with increasing load. The free-end slip at maximum load was a function of the degree of reinforcement corrosion. At small degrees of corrosion, the bond strength increased with increasing degree of corrosion, showing a maximum increase of over 25% at 0.4% corrosion. Higher degrees of corrosion led to a sharp decrease in bond strength.

---

Résumé Cet article présente les résultats d’une étude expérimentale sur les caractéristiques d’adhésion pour des poutres en béton armé où l’armature est exposée à la corrosion. Des échantillons de poutres recommandés par le comité joint RILEM/CEB/FIP étaient employés sous forme de deux moitiés d’une poutre en béton armé tournant autour d’un pivot. La corrosion était induite à plusieurs niveaux de réduction de la section d’armature à savoir 0; 0,3; 0,4; 0,5; 1, 2 et 5% par le biais d’un courant direct d’intensité 0,8 et 2,4 mA/cm². Les échantillons ont été testés sous des conditions de quatre points de flexion pour induire l’affaiblissement d’adhésion des courbes de glissement ont été tracées. Les essais ont démontré que jusqu’à 0,4% de corrosion, il n’y avait pas de glissement par l’armature jusqu’à rupture totale d’adhésion. Pour des niveaux de corrosion élevés, le glissement a commencé dès l’application de la charge augmentant linéairement avec l’augmentation de celle-ci. Le glissement sous charge maximale est une fonction du degré des armatures. Pour un faible niveau de corrosion, l’adhésion augmente avec le degré de corrosion, pour un accroissement de l’adhésion de plus de 25% pour un degré de corrosion de 0,4%. Des niveaux de corrosion élevés induisent une réduction significative de l’adhésion.

---

---

Editorial Note Prof. P. Mangat is a Senior Member and the Chairman of RILEM TC LPC: Long term performance characteristics of fibre cement composites.     

Closed form equations for FRP flexural strengthening design of RC beams

FRP external strengthening has proven its success in structural rehabilitation and upgrade. Researchers and practicing engineers are working towards introducing its design procedures to standard codes of practice. The current state of the art flexural design process suggests an iterative approach, which may lead to tedious calculations. This paper provides a direct approach furnishing calculation simplicity and design efficiency. It also proposes equations to design doubly strengthened sections for the first time. The expressions derived for doubly reinforced rectangular and Tee sections are written in a compact form based on those formulated for singly reinforced rectangular sections. Verifications against experimental results are performed. The solution, using the closed form equations, is compared to that of other procedures available in the literature through design examples. Tee section design is also presented and illustrated through a comparison with an analysis example. A doubly strengthened beam design example is also solved. The prevention of premature FRP plate separation using U-wraps to develop the full flexural capacity is also discussed.     

Structural performance of corroded RC beams repaired with CFRP sheets

Corrosion of reinforcement is a serious problem and is the main cause of concrete structures deterioration costing millions of dollars even though the majority of such structures are at the early age of their expected service life. This paper presents the experimental results of damaged/repaired reinforced concrete beams. The experimental program consisted of reinforced concrete rectangular beam specimens exposed to accelerated corrosion. The corrosion rate was varied between 5% and 15% which represents loss in cross-sectional area of the steel reinforcement in the tension side. Corroded beams were repaired by bonding carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets to the tension side to restore the strength loss due to corrosion. Different strengthening schemes were used to repair the damaged beams. Test results showed detrimental effect of corrosion on strength as well as the bond between steel reinforcement and the surrounding concrete. Corroded beams showed lower stiffness and strength than control (uncorroded) beams. However, strength of damaged beams due to corrosion was restored to the undamaged state when strengthened with CFRP sheets. On the other hand, the ultimate deflection of strengthened beams was less than ultimate deflection of un-strengthened beams.     

Experiments and analytical comparison of RC beams strengthened with CFRP composites

This paper deals with strengthening, upgrading, and rehabilitation of existing reinforced concrete structures using externally bonded composite materials. Five strengthened, retrofitted, or rehabilitated reinforced concrete beams are experimentally and analytically investigated. Emphasis in placed on the stress concentration that arises near the edge of the fiber reinforced plastic strip, the failure modes triggered by these edge effects, and the means for the prevention of such modes of failure. Three beams are tested with various edge configurations that include wrapping the edge region with vertical composite straps and special forms of the adhesive layer at its edge. The last two beams are preloaded up to failure before strengthening and the ability to rehabilitate members that endured progressive or even total damage is examined. The results reveal a significant improvement in the serviceability and strength of the tested beams and demonstrate that the method is suitable for the rehabilitation of severely damaged structural members. They also reveal the efficiency of the various edge designs and their ability to control the characteristic brittle failure modes. The analytical results are obtained through the Closed-Form High-Order model and are in good agreement with the experiment ones. The analytical and experimental results are also used for a preliminary quantitative evaluation of a fracture mechanics based failure criterion for the strengthened beam.     

Analytical approach for the flexural analysis of RC beams strengthened with prestressed CFRP

The objective of this paper is to propose a simplified analytical approach to predict the flexural behavior of simply supported reinforced-concrete (RC) beams flexurally strengthened with prestressed carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) reinforcements using either externally bonded reinforcing (EBR) or near surface mounted (NSM) techniques. This design methodology also considers the ultimate flexural capacity of NSM CFRP strengthened beams when concrete cover delamination is the governing failure mode. A moment–curvature (M–χ) relationship formed by three linear branches corresponding to the precracking, postcracking, and postyielding stages is established by considering the four critical M–χ points that characterize the flexural behavior of CFRP strengthened beams. Two additional M–χ points, namely, concrete decompression and steel decompression, are also defined to assess the initial effects of the prestress force applied by the FRP reinforcement. The mid-span deflection of the beams is predicted based on the curvature approach, assuming a linear curvature variation between the critical points along the beam length. The good predictive performance of the analytical model is appraised by simulating the force–deflection response registered in experimental programs composed of RC beams strengthened with prestressed NSM CFRP reinforcements.     

Fatigue behavior of RC beams strengthened with prestressed NSM CFRP rods

The fatigue performance of Reinforced Concrete (RC) beams strengthened using NSM CFRP rods was examined in this study. The testing matrix consisted of one un-strengthened beam and four beams strengthened using NSM CFRP rods prestressed to effective strain values of 0, 3260, 6899, and 9177 μ representing 0%, 20.4%, 43.1%, and 57.4% of the CFRP rod ultimate tensile strain, 1.6%. All beams were tested in four-point bending under fatigue conditions representing in-service loading for 3 million cycles at a frequency of 2 Hz. Upper and lower load limits were chosen to induce a stress range of 125 MPa in the tension steel during the first cycle. The fatigue results were compared with experimental test results of identical beams strengthened using prestressed NSM CFRP strips tested under identical fatigue conditions found elsewhere in literature. Test results showed that all strengthened beams experienced deflection increase lower than that of the un-strengthened beam which indicates the efficiency of the strengthening process in reducing the damage accumulation. Also, the percentage deflection increase as well as the stiffness degradation after 3 million cycles are almost the same for all the strengthened beams which indicates that damage accumulation is independent from the prestress level. The groove dimensionality, rather than the CFRP geometry, has a detrimental effect on the bond behavior.     

Smeared crack models of RC beams with externally bonded CFRP plates

Concrete, a complex mix of variously sized aggregates, sand, water, additives and cement binder, is one of the more common engineering materials used for the design and construction of structures and bridges. Concrete is characterised by good compressive strength properties but it demands the use of internal reinforcement, generally in the form of round steel bars, to carry tensile stresses. The strength of the resulting element is dependent on the amount and distribution of steel reinforcement included during construction. It is not however possible to include additional internal reinforcement after construction in the event of the applied loading being increased and therefore consideration must be given to strengthening the structure externally, demolishing it, or confining it to specific usage, for example a maximum weight restriction on a bridge. In circumstances where restricted usage is not practicable structural strengthening is generally more favourable than demolition and replacement. Research in the area of strengthening of existing bridge beams is currently topical in the European Union given recent EU directives, aimed at encouraging free trade and movement of goods and services, which require all bridges to take 40 tonne vehicles. This paper describes the numerical modelling procedures employed, using smeared crack models available in ANSYS V5.4, to capture the load-deformation response and modes of failure, of reinforced concrete beams which have been strengthened, using carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite material plates. Experimental verifications of these simulations have also been performed and are discussed in the present paper. Received 12 December 1999     

RC beams strengthened with NSM CFRP rods and modeling of peeling-off failure

The aim of the experimental programme developed in this work was to investigate the possibility of using Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) rods to strengthen concrete structural members with the Near Surface Mounted reinforcement (NSM) technique. The global behaviour of reinforced cantilever concrete beams strengthened by the NSM technique and subjected to flexure is investigated. The specific problem of cantilever beams (strengthening outward pressure) was studied. The global behaviour of the cantilever concrete beams was compared with that of beams subjected to flexure with four points load test. A carbon–epoxy pultruded FRP (CFRP) rod of 6 mm in diameter was used. The study was carried out up to the failure load, and focused on the modifications in mechanical behaviour, cracking and failure mode of the beams. An analytical and Finite Element models to predict the peeling-off failure mode were compared.