Instructions, modeling, and rehearsal: Implications for training.

Studied the effects of instructions, modeling, and rehearsal in training 48 college students in empathic communication. Ss were assigned to 1 of 8 groups representing all possible factorial combinations of the variables which included instructions vs no instructions, modeling vs no modeling, and rehearsal vs no rehearsal. Training gains were assessed using written responses to the pre- and posttest administration of the Carkhuff Communication Index. Generalization effects were assessed using empathy ratings of a critical-incident interview. Analysis of written responses indicated that improvement in empathic communication occurred for all training groups. Specific instructions appeared to be a criticial factor in facilitating written performance. The interviews showed that a combination of training variables facilitated empathic responses during an interview more than each variable alone. Modeling seemed to be an effective procedure for the interview task. The instructional effect did not generalize very well. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative-state relief and the empathy—altruism hypothesis.

Tested the suggestion of R. B. Cialdini et al (see record 1987-21901-001) that the motivation to help associated with empathic emotion is directed toward the egoistic goal of negative-state relief, not toward the altruistic goal of relieving the victim's distress. To test this suggestion, we led empathically aroused Ss to anticipate an imminent mood-enhancing experience. We reasoned that if the motivation to help associated with empathy were directed toward the goal of negative-state relief, then empathically aroused individuals who anticipate mood-enhancement should help less than those who do not. Study 1 verified the effectiveness of our anticipated mood-enhancement manipulation; results indicated that this manipulation could serve as an effective source of negative-state relief. Results of Studies 2 and 3, in which empathy was either measured or manipulated, indicated that the rate of helping among high-empathy Ss was no lower when they anticipated mood enhancement than when they did not. Regardless of anticipated mood enhancement, high-empathy Ss helped more than low-empathy Ss. Results support the empathy–altruism hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling, sensitivity training, and instruction: Implications for the training of college student volunteers and for outcome research.

Assigned 59 male undergraduate volunteers to 1 of 3 social skills training conditions-videotaped modeling, sensitivity training, or no training-and later placed them in a small group situation wherein each member presented a personal problem and attempted to understand the problem of another. Half of the groups received general instructions; 1/2 received specific instructions. Under general instructions, modeling- and sensitivity-trained Ss performed better than Ss with no training on both specific behavioral and global qualitative measures. However, under specific instructions, all Ss performed equally well. Results are discussed in terms of implications for the selection and training of nonprofessional mental health workers, and for outcome research on sensitivity training and modeling. (23 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences among adult women in sensitivity to infants: Evidence in support of an empathy concept.

Assessed emotional and physiological responsivity to infant signals in Ss who differed markedly in their level of empathy. 18 high-empathy and 20 low-empathy female undergraduates viewed videotaped scenes of smiling, quiescent, and crying 5-mo-olds as the observers' physiological and facial reactions were monitored. Ss then rated their subjective emotional reactions to the scenes and judged the intensity of the infants' need for care. High-empathy Ss had larger electrodermal responses, tended to respond with matching facial expressions, had more extreme happiness and sadness reactions, and indicated stronger desire to pick up the infants. Additionally, the empathic group showed a trend toward greater cardiac responsiveness to the signals. Results support the hypothesis that high-empathy individuals are more emotionally responsive to infant emotional stimuli and hold different values about caregiving behavior. Applications of the findings to the training of caregivers are considered. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of instructions and modeling on self-disclosure.

Examined the relative effectiveness of modeling and instructional procedures in training college students to self-disclose. 48 male undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of the following instructional conditions: specific instructions to discuss personal feelings within specified topic areas, general instructions to discuss personal feelings within the same topics, or no instructions. Half of the Ss also listened to a model discussing his feelings within identical topic areas, and half did not receive a model. All Ss then participated in a brief monologue, which was scored for self-disclosure. Instructions and modeling, alone and in combination, increased the occurrence of self-disclosure, but the performance of the combination condition was not significantly greater than the performance of modeling or instructions alone. A post hoc analysis showed the instructional effect was due to the difference between specific instructions and no instructions. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of instructions and modeling on trainees low in interpersonal-communication skills.

Examined the effects of instructions and modeling in the reflection-of-feeling training of individuals low in interpersonal-communication skills. Participants with low scores on R. Carkhuff's Communication Index (25 males and 25 females) were randomly assigned by sex to 1 of the 5 training groups so that there were 5 males and 5 females in each group. After viewing videotaped training material, each participant conducted a 15-min interview with a volunteer "client" and completed the Communication Index a second time. Interviews were scored for frequency of reflection-of-feeling responses and level of empathic communication displayed. Analysis of the reflection-of-feeling data indicated that instructions and instructions-plus-modeling were facilitative procedures. Ratings of written and verbal empathy demonstrated the effectiveness of the 2 combined conditions: instructions-plus-modeling and modeling-plus-instructions. Calculation of correlations among scores on criterion measures revealed a positive correlation between reflection-of-feeling scores and ratings of empathic communication. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Approaches to empathy training: Programmed methods versus individual supervision and professional versus peer supervisors.

Examined the effects of training method (programmed vs individual supervision) and supervisor experience (peer vs professional) on the learning of empathy. Eight supervisors (4 professional and 4 peer) were assigned 3 Ss in each of 3 groups: individually supervised, programmed, and control. Ss listened to 3 sets of recorded client statements and responded as counselors. The 2 experimental groups received training after the 1st and 2nd sets. The control group received no training. An analysis of recorded responses indicated that the individually supervised Ss achieved a significantly higher level of empathy than the controls. Ss receiving programmed training were intermediate in learning between individually supervised and control Ss. Supervisor experience was not found to be a significant factor as no posttraining differences were noted between professional and peer-trained groups. This result supports the use of peers in such interpersonal skills training. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of diagnostic information on empathic understanding by the therapist in a psychotherapy analogue.

Presented psychoanalytic, phenomenological, or no diagnostic information about 3 clients to each of 18 graduate students training to be psychotherapists. Ss' responses to a therapy tape of the client then were scored for empathic communication. Ss also completed a Q sort on how they thought the client perceived himself at the time of the interview. An index of accuracy of empathic inference was computed between the Ss' Q sorts of the clients and the clients' own self-sorts. No significant effects of the diagnostic information on empathy were found. Certain clients consistently elicited a greater degree of empathy from Ss. Degree of empathic communication was found to be a relatively stable therapist characteristic. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Microcounseling versus human relations training: Relative effectiveness with undergraduate trainees.

Randomly assigned 24 undergraduates to 1 of 2 counselor training systems. 12 human relations training Ss received training in R. R. Carkhuff's 7 core counselor conditions. 12 microcounseling Ss were trained in the use of attending behavior, minimal activity responses, verbal following behavior, open inquiry, and reflection of feeling. Pre- and posttraining interviews with standard clients were audiotaped for each S. Trainees were assessed on empathy and on 3 categories of counselor communication derived from the microcounseling training content. Compared to no-training control groups, all experimental Ss significantly improved on both sets of training criteria. However, the microcounseling Ss gained significantly more on empathy than did the human relations training Ss. Differences in the instructional techniques of the 2 systems are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modelling and instructional effects as a function of conceptual level.

Investigated the effects of conceptual level (CL) and training mode (modeling and instructions) on 3 problem-solving skills: problem definition, generation of alternatives, and choice behavior. 32 high and 32 low CL Ss (female undergraduates) were randomly assigned to 4 training conditions: instructions, modeling, instructions plus modeling, and control. Data indicate minimal support for the matching model. Modeling was an effective method in facilitating alternative generation. All 3 training conditions were effective in choice selection. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of including task variables in a matching model paradigm. Recommendations concerning future matching model studies are made. (French summary) (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-punitive running in the rat following start box fear conditioning: Shock intensity effects.

In Phase 1 of an experiment with 240 female hooded rats, buzzer-alone presentations or buzzer-shock pairings were given in the start box of a 4-ft straight alley. Phase 2 consisted of runway test trials during which there was no shock in the alley or there was shock in the last 2 ft. Shock levels employed in each phase were 0, 40, 53, and 70 v. All Phase 1 nonshock Ss ceased running by Trial 3. In general, for Ss shocked in Phase 1, running speed and the number of Ss completing all 60 trials were greater for shocked than nonshocked Phase 2 conditions. In addition, the stronger the Phase 1 shock, the greater the number completing all trials and the faster the speeds. Phase 2 shock intensity was not a significant factor. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching counselor trainees to respond consistently to different aspects of anger.

Examined the effects of verbal practice training procedures in teaching counselor trainees to consistently respond to 2 aspects of client anger: form (passive or aggressive manner) and direction (toward or away from the counselor). 48 graduate students were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 videotaped counselor training procedures. After training, each S was assigned to 2 of the 4 anger conditions and was asked to conduct 2 10-min counseling sessions. Ss in either of the 2 experimental conditions, verbal practice with modeling or verbal practice without modeling, were significantly more consistent in responding to the confederate clients' anger than were those in the control group. The treatment effects were maintained 1 wk later. Significant differences were also found for direction of client anger and the interaction between treatments and direction. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation.

84 female undergraduates were exposed to a person in distress and instructed either to observe the victim's reactions (low empathy) or to imagine the victim's feelings (high empathy). This empathy manipulation was crossed with a manipulation of ease of escape without helping (easy vs difficult) to form a 2?×?2 design. As predicted by the empathy-altruism hypothesis, Ss in the low-empathy condition helped less when escape was easy than when it was difficult. This suggests that their helping was directed toward the egoistic goal of reducing their own distress. Ss in the high-empathy condition, however, displayed a high rate of helping, even when escape was easy. This suggests that their helping was directed toward the altruistic goal of reducing the distress of the person in need. Analyses of Ss' self-reported emotional response provided additional support for the hypothesis that feeling a predominance of empathy rather than distress on witnessing someone in need can evoke altruistic motivation. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of trainee expectancies and specific instructions on counselling skill acquisition.

Examined the acquisition of counseling skill by 31 inexperienced undergraduate counselor trainees as a function of (1) brief, specific instructions on how to counsel and (2) Ss' pretraining expectancies pertaining to nondirective vs directive counseling style. The Reisman Direction-Unconscious Motivation Scale was used to identify Ss of high vs low directiveness expectancy, and Ss of these 2 groups were randomly assigned to training or control conditions. The training group showed significant training gains on 2 microcounseling criteria, while the directiveness-expectancy variable had no significant effect. Findings vis-à-vis the brief instructions illustrate that a significant training gain can be induced simply by alerting trainees to the evaluative criteria. It is concluded that such instructions could be used both as highly efficient means of instituting initial counseling skill in paraprofessional workers and as an apt control in assessing the effect of relatively more extensive counselor training programs. (French abstract) (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of instructions and modeling on trainees low in interpersonal-communication skills: Erratum to Uhlemann et al.

Reports an error in the original article by Max R. Uhlemann, Gary W. Lea, and Gerald L. Stone (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1976, Vol. 23, pp. 509-513). There is an error in Table 2 (p. 512). The value given for the mean change score for the control condition is -.01; it should be changed to .01. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1977-06314-001.) Examined the effects of instructions and modeling in the reflection-of-feeling training of individuals low in interpersonal-communication skills. Participants with low scores on R. Carkhuff's Communication Index (25 males and 25 females) were randomly assigned by sex to 1 of the 5 training groups so that there were 5 males and 5 females in each group. After viewing videotaped training material, each participant conducted a 15-min interview with a volunteer "client" and completed the Communication Index a second time. Interviews were scored for frequency of reflection-of-feeling responses and level of empathic communication displayed. Analysis of the reflection-of-feeling data indicated that instructions and instructions-plus-modeling were facilitative procedures. Ratings of written and verbal empathy demonstrated the effectiveness of the 2 combined conditions: instructions-plus-modeling and modeling-plus-instructions. Calculation of correlations among scores on criterion measures revealed a positive correlation between reflection-of-feeling scores and ratings of empathic communication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is empathy-induced helping due to self–other merging?

Two experiments tested the idea that empathy-induced helping is due to self–other merging. To manipulate empathy, half of the participants in each experiment received instructions to remain objective while hearing about a young woman in need (low-empathy condition), and half received instructions to imagine her feelings (high-empathy condition). To check generality of the empathy–helping relationship, half in each empathy condition learned that the young woman was a student at their university (shared group membership), and half learned that she was a student at a rival university (unshared group membership). Self-reported empathy for and willingness to help the young woman were assessed, and 3 measures of self–other merging were taken. In each experiment, an empathy–helping relationship was found, unqualified by group membership, that could not be accounted for by any of the merging measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using principles of social learning in training for communication of empathy.

Examined the effects of modeling vs no modeling and modeling vs systematic training in brief empathy training. 90 university student hall advisers were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: modeling/systematic training, systematic training only, and the resident hall adviser program. The modeled learning experience was presented in a 90-min videotape. Systematic training was provided in 5 2-hr training sessions. Significant modeling and significant training effects were demonstrated. Systematic training does not appear to represent a superior method of developing empathic response behavior when compared to the briefer modeled experience. While the level of communicated empathy was raised nearly 1 level following exposure to the modeled learning experience, it was still significantly lower than that communicated by the model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)