Cognitive, assertive, and insight-oriented group therapies in the treatment of reactive depression in women.

33 nonpsychotic, nonsuicidal women (mean age 35.1 yrs) who scored between 15 and 31 on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and whose depression was situationally related were assigned to 6-wk cognitive, assertive, or insight-oriented group therapy. Ss were administered a standardized interview, BDI, Rathus Assertiveness Schedule, Personality Data Form, and 4 tape-recorded scenes requiring an assertive response before and after the groups and at a 2-mo follow-up. Results show all groups improved significantly in depression, rationality, and assertiveness. Assertive and insight groups improved significantly more in rationality regarding acceptance than the cognitive group. At follow-up, none of the assertive groups, 18% of the cognitive group, and 45% of the insight group had sought further treatment. Additionally, the assertive group was significantly more rational regarding frustrating events and self-worth. The assertive and insight groups made significantly more gains and were more assertive than the cognitive group. A 3 (change in depression) by 3 (treatment group) ANOVA showed high-depression-change and medium-depression-change Ss changed significantly more in assertiveness and rationally than low-depression change Ss. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conflict resolution among field-independent and field-dependent Anglo-American and Mexican-American children and their mothers.

32 Anglo-American and Mexican-American boys and girls selected for their extreme field independence or dependence (Man-in-the Frame box, adapted from the rod-and-frame test) interacted with their mothers in 3 role plays designed to provoke conflict over issues of maternal authority and children's independence. The mother–child interactions were recorded, transcribed, and content analyzed. Anglo-American children more often than Mexican-American children entered and persisted in direct conflict with their mothers as indicated by a number of variables such as disagreement and justification of their own will. There was some tendency for Mexican-American mothers to ask fewer questions and to assert their own will more than Anglo-American mothers. Field independence among boys, but field dependence among girls, was associated with more assertive behaviors. Mothers of field-independent children used a somewhat more elaborate verbal code. The study supports hypothesized cultural differences in mother–child interaction patterns, but fails to support the presumed socialization antecedents of field dependence and the cross-sex generality of its correlates. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transfer of assertion-training effects to roommates of program participants.

Investigated the effects of assertion training (AT) on 36 college freshmen and on the behavior of 33 roommates who did not themselves receive AT. Ss, each of whom shared a dormitory room with a roommate, were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatment conditions: an AT group, a discussion-oriented group, or a no-treatment control group. Covariance analysis of posttreatment measures of assertiveness (College Self-Expression Scale, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Social Avoidance and Distress Scale) revealed that the AT group, but not the discussion group, was significantly more assertive than the control group. The AT group, but not the discussion group, was also significantly less socially anxious than the control group. Roommates of Ss who received AT obtained significantly higher assertiveness scores than roommates of Ss in either of the other 2 groups. Possible mechanisms for the generalization of the effects of AT to roommates and clinical implications are discussed. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pathognomic verbalizations, anxiety and hostility in normal Mexican and United States Anglo-American children's fantasies: A longitudinal study.

Investigated the effects of culture on the development of logical thinking and degree of emotional disturbance in normal children. Mexican and US Anglo-American school children (N = 392), closely paired on sex, age, and socioeconomic status, were employed as Ss in an overlapping, longitudinal design covering a span of 12 yrs in only 6 yrs of repeated testing. Initial testing was done at ages 6.7, 9.7, and 12.7 yrs for each of 3 age groups, respectively. A complex analysis of variance design was constructed with 5 main factors: culture, socioeconomic status, sex, age group, and trial. The main effect as well as interactions involving culture were investigated on 3 dependent variables: Holtzman Inkblot Technique Pathognomic-Verbalization, Anxiety, and Hostility scores. Results showed significantly higher amounts of disturbed thinking and anxious and hostile response content in Anglo-American than in Mexican Ss. Results are interpreted in light of cultural differences in family structure and styles of coping. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situational determinants of assertive behaviors.

Administered 32 assertive situations that varied in social-interpersonal context to 60 male 21-67 yr old hospitalized psychiatric patients via role playing. Half of the role-played situations required the expression of negative (hostile) assertiveness, and the other half required positive (commendatory) assertive expression. Situational context was varied by having Ss respond to male and female interpersonal partners who were either familiar or unfamiliar to Ss. Responses were videotaped and rated on 5 measures of speech content and 7 measures of nonverbal behavior. Additionally, groups of high- and low-assertive patients were identified from the total sample using a behavioral measure of global assertiveness and a self-report instrument. Results indicate that interpersonal behavior in assertive situations varied as a function of social context. Further, high- and low-assertive Ss were differentiated on the basis of 9 of the 12 measures of interpersonal behavior. Support for a stimulus specific theory of assertive behaviors and implications for assertive training are discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assertiveness training from the participants' perspective.

Describes a model for a 7-session assertiveness training workshop that has been used with groups of women in several different mental health settings. Results of follow-up evaluations of 85 Ss who participated in assertiveness training over a 2-yr period are presented. These data indicate an enthusiastic response to the experience and increased assertiveness in interpersonal relationships. Many Ss became more aware of their right to be assertive and more capable of assertiveness in some situations, yet more aware of and dissatisfied with their lack of assertiveness in others. Most wanted a one-session workshop to review and practice their skills or a workshop focused on a specific topic, such as vocational or sexual assertiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A verbal response model of assertiveness.

Investigated the effect of a verbal response model of assertiveness with 25 nonassertive female nursing students (mean age, 26 yrs). The model is composed of 3 verbal components presented in a systematic training program. Ss were randomly assigned to 3 groups: the assertive training group, the attention control group, and the no-treatment control group. The assertive training group learned and practiced the model. All groups were posttested on the College Self-Expression Scale, on responses to written situations, and on 2 scores of a videotape role-playing situation. Significant differences were found between the assertive training group and the attention control group and between the assertive training group and the no-treatment control group, but not between the attention control and the no-treatment control groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social desirability responding in the measurement of assertive behavior.

Investigated social desirability responding in the measurement of assertive behavior. 30 22–56 yr old middle-class women completed self-report and analogue behavioral measures of assertion and anxiety before and after assertiveness training. The measures included the Assertion Inventory, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and role-played assertiveness scenes during a telephone call. Consistent with social desirability theory and research, high social desirability scorers described themselves as more assertive and less anxious than low scorers, but were behaviorally less assertive than low scorers. Although both high and low scorers improved their assertion skills, high scorers did not appear less anxious after assertiveness training, unlike low scorers. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assertion training with handicapped persons.

Investigated the effects of assertion training in 9 handicapped college students and 5 handicapped discharged rehabilitative medicare outpatients. Ss were matched on self-reported assertiveness and were assigned to 1 of 2 groups: (a) treatment Ss who received assertion training, and (b) waiting-list-control Ss who received no treatment for 5 wks and then received assertion training. Behavioral role playing, self-report, and activity budget pre- and posttest measures revealed that assertion-training Ss reported significantly greater gains in assertive behavior and showed greater improvement in performance on 7 criterion measures than did control Ss. 18 criterion measures did not show any differences between treatment and control groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Increase in assertiveness and actualization as a function of didactic training.

Investigated whether didactic training could increase level of assertiveness and actualization. 65 low assertive undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 groups. All groups except a no-treatment control group were exposed to 3 20-min videotapes during 1 wk. Group 1 was exposed to the didactic principles of Rogerian theory; Group 2 was given the didactic principles of assertiveness theory. All Ss were given a test battery administered before treatment, after treatment, and again at a 3-wk follow-up. Both Rogerian and assertiveness training increased the level of actualization and the level of time competence at posttesting and at follow-up; the effect of didactic training was significantly greater than the increase caused by inspiration or expectation. Didactic training, however, did not affect assertiveness. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of covert modeling and model reinforcement on assertive behavior.

Investigated the effect of covert modeling in developing assertive behavior in 45 17-52 yr olds. Nonassertive Ss received covert modeling (imagined scenes in which a model performed assertively), covert modeling plus reinforcement (imagined scenes in which a model performed assertively and favorable consequences followed model performance), no modeling (imagined scenes with neither an assertive model nor favorable consequences), or delayed treatment (no-treatment controls who subsequently received either covert modeling or modeling plus reinforcement). In 4 treatment sessions, both model and model-reinforcement conditions improved significantly on self-report inventories (Conflict Resolution Inventory, Action Situation Inventory, Wolpe-Lazarus Assertive Training Scale, and Wolpe's Willoughby Scale) and a role-playing test of assertiveness. The modeling-reinforcement group tended to show greater assertiveness at posttreatment assessment and follow-up. The effects of covert modeling were maintained up to a 3-mo follow-up assessment. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Premorbid social competence construct generalizability across ethnic groups: Path analyses with two premorbid social competence components.

Studied the stability across ethnic groups of interrelations among 5 variables (education, age at 1st psychiatric hospitalization, current age, alcoholism symptom severity, and behavioral adjustment while hospitalized) using path analysis. 24 male Mexican Americans, mean age 39.8 yrs, and 24 male Anglo Americans, mean age 47.1 yrs, were studied. Behavioral adjustment was determined with the MACC Behavioral Adjustment Scale. Certain findings involving 4 variables were consistent with theoretical expectations for the Anglo-American group but were reversed in the Mexican-American group. Methodological and theoretical implications are presented. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How unassertive women perceive emotional expressions.

Examined assertive and unassertive women's perception of others' emotional reactions. 96 undergraduate women completed the College Self-Expression Scale, an assertiveness inventory. Ss were presented with 12 requests which they imagined refusing. Ss were then shown, in sequence, 3 different photographs depicting the other person's response. Ss identified and indicated the intensity of the particular emotion they saw in the photograph. Results indicate that when viewing a smiling expression, low assertive Ss saw significantly more negative emotion and less positive emotion than high assertive Ss. High and low assertive Ss did not differ in the emotion they perceived in the slightly distressed or very distressed expressions. Results suggest an interpersonal focus in understanding unassertive behavior. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assertiveness, territoriality, and personal space behavior as a function of group assertion training.

42 18-40 yr old females who requested services from a university counseling center were employed to examine changes in assertiveness, territoriality, and personal space as a function of group assertion training. Ss were assigned to either a treatment (assertion training) group or to a control (waiting list) group. The following outcomes were hypothesized: (a) Ss who participated in the assertion training treatment program would increase their assertive behavior significantly more than controls. (b) Treatment Ss would exhibit smaller personal space zones than would controls. (c) Treatment Ss would use more space on a drawing task than would controls. Data collected from a battery of measures, including the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule, the College Self-Expression Scale, and the Assertive Behavior Situation Test, provided strong support for the 1st and 3rd hypothesis and partial support for the 2nd hypothesis. Implications of the findings for counseling and for the use of ethological constructs are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the decision to be assertive.

Examines the applicability of an expectancy/decision model to assertiveness in a nonclinical population of 111 college students. Assertiveness, defined as refusal to comply with an unreasonable request, has been researched extensively from the viewpoint of behavior theory, which prescribes anxiety reduction and skill acquisition for the training of assertive behaviors. However, little has been done to investigate the reasons why assertive behavior occurs in one situation and not in another. Results suggest that the Ss, irrespective of their scores on standard measures of assertiveness and of anxiety (Rathus Assertion Inventory and the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory Trait Scale), considered the consequences of being assertive when making a decision about how to behave. Moreover, it was found that the difference between Ss who chose an assertive response and those who did not lies in the formers' assessments of the probabilities that bad consequences will occur and good consequences will not rather than in their evaluations of how bad or how good those consequences would be. Results imply that training programs should take into account the participant's perceptions of the risks involved in being assertive and that the focus should be on changing these perceptions rather than on attempting to change his or her values or focusing solely on specific assertive behaviors. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of conceptual complexity on assertive behavior.

Postulated that information-processing style is an important cognitive skill for effective assertive behavior and identified conceptual complexity (CC) as the variable that defined Ss' information-processing approach. In 2 studies, 146 undergraduates differing in CC were compared in their performance on various measures relevant to competent assertive behavior (e.g., Assertiveness Knowledge Inventory, the Hypothetical Behavior Role-Playing Assertion Test, and the Assertiveness Self-Statement Test). In Exp I, high CC Ss (e.g., those who possessed abstract schema for processing social information) demonstrated greater content knowledge, direct delivery skill, and fewer negative self-statements that inhibit assertiveness. Exp II involved the testing of various hypotheses about the specific role of CC in assertive encounters. High vs low CC females were more assertive in difficult situations (e.g., interaction with close friends) but did not differ in simple situations. High CC Ss were more assertive in extended interaction tests, expressed consideration of the needs of others, and were more flexible in sex-role orientation. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral and bodily self concept changes after assertive training. A pilot study

The study aims at finding correlations between the development of assertiveness through assertive training and the modification of the bodily self concept (or body image). Eleven social phobic patients (6 women, 5 men, mean age 31.5) are treated in two groups and measured by Rathus's assertiveness schedule, and Osgood's semantic differential (key concepts: my self, my body, my voice, my gestures, my look; control concept: a table). At post test and follow-up (between 6 and 9 months), an ANOVA shows a significant positive change in assertiveness (p 0.001), correlated with modifications in bodily self concept. The patients are rating their body and their look as more active and stronger, but the body is perceived as more dangerous (p 0.05). No change appears in the other key concepts and the control concept. The interrelation between behavioral and cognitive changes are discussed.     

Interests of assertiveness trainees.

149 participants in assertiveness training groups rated their degree of interest in improving their assertive skills in 26 areas. A rank order of mean interest ratings for 149 trainees indicated that being assertive when confronted with another's aggression was the highest priority, whereas saying "no" in various situations assumed a much lower priority. Results indicate where assertiveness training groups may be deficient in meeting individuals' needs and suggest areas for increased emphasis that would more effectively meet these needs. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and empirical evaluation of a self-administered assertiveness training program.

A self-administered assertiveness training program, developed from empirical data involving assertiveness training and self-control, was designed to train refusal of unreasonable requests not only from strangers but also in the context of close relationships in which continuation of the relationship is important. A comparison with a procedurally parallel placebo program, which was empirically established to be equally credible, indicated that both programs increased assertive expression of rights. (Ss were 20 volunteers.) However, the assertiveness program produced superior effectiveness of assertion, content of assertion, verbalization of assertion-related obligations, persistent assertive responding, and rational cognitive behaviors. (1 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)