Cerebral blood flow velocity decreases during cognitive stimulation in Huntington's disease

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether activation of cerebral blood flow velocity during cognitive stimulation, as measured by transcranial Doppler ultrasonography (TCD), is altered in patients with Huntington's Disease (HD). BACKGROUND: Previous research suggests that resting cerebral blood flow in symptomatic and asymptomatic HD patients is reduced from expected premorbid levels. The effects of cognitive activation on this relative hypoperfusion in HD has not been studied extensively. METHODS: We measured TCD flow velocity during rest and cognitive testing with the Porteus Maze Test and the Trails Test in 12 normal control subjects and 10 gene-positive HD patients. Percent change (i.e., flow during testing/resting) of flow velocity in the anterior and middle cerebral arteries were compared between groups. Correlations among percent flow velocity change, a disability rating scale, and cognitive test scores were calculated. RESULTS: In control subjects, anterior cerebral artery flow velocity and middle cerebral artery velocity increased during cognitive testing (p=0.001). HD patients showed a smaller blood flow velocity increase in the anterior cerebral arteries during the Porteus Maze Test (p < 0.001) and the Trails Test, Part B (p < 0.001). In the left anterior cerebral artery, flow velocity fell an average of 4.2% below resting baseline levels during the Porteus Maze Test, and 1.2% below resting levels during the Trails Test. The magnitude of the cerebral blood flow velocity changes in the anterior cerebral artery correlated with a number of cognitive test scores and with a rating scale of functional disability. In addition, logistic regression was able to discriminate the HD patients from the control group based on blood flow velocity changes (p=0.0025). When HD patients were divided into more (i.e., HD with chorea; n=4) and less impaired (i.e., without chorea; n=6) groups, both showed significant decreases in left anterior cerebral artery flow velocity during visual spatial executive cognition testing compared with control subjects. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that activation of visual spatial executive functions cause decreased flow velocity in the anterior cerebral artery, but not the middle cerebral artery, in HD patients. These changes are related to test performance and functional capabilities.     

Delinquency, delay of gratification, recidivism, and the Porteus Maze Tests.

Two principal scores are derived from an S's performance on the Porteus Maze Test: Test Age (TA) and Qualitative (Q) score. It was originally thought that a person's delinquent tendencies could be predicted on the basis of the relationship between his/her TA and IQ, but a careful review of the literature does not support this view. Reanalysis of previous studies shows that the Q score was specifically developed to identify delinquents and appears to do so very well. When Q scores of delinquent and normal groups are compared, the differences are consistent and highly significant. When the established cutoff points are used, Q score correctly identifies about 70% of delinquents sampled, as well as 70% of normals. Additional Q score findings within delinquent and nondelinquent groups are also discussed. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Porteus maze performance following traumatic brain injury in children.

To investigate planning in traumatically brain injured children, the authors gave the Porteus Maze Test (PMT; S. D. Porteus, 1959) to 276 pediatric patients who had sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI) at least 3 years previously. Sensitivity of the PMT to TBI severity, age at test, and volume of focal brain lesions detected by magnetic resonance imaging was also studied. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (L. M. Dunn & L. M. Dunn, 1981) was also administered as a control measure. Results indicated that the PMT was highly sensitive to TBI severity and to volume of circumscribed prefrontal lesions. In contrast to the PMT data, receptive vocabulary was related to injury severity but not to discrete prefrontal lesions. Implications for mechanisms of cognitive deficit after TBI in children are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem solving as a function of children's defensiveness and parental behavior.

The performance of 2 groups of 16 5th-grade boys, one low defensive and low anxious (LD) and the other high defensive and low anxious (HD) on the Defensiveness and Test Anxiety Scales for Children, was compared on the Porteus Maze Test taken with mothers absent and on a different form of the Porteus plus a jigsaw puzzle test with mothers present. Mothers were rated on a set of rating scales as they helped their sons with the puzzle. The results suggest that (a) discrepancies between ability and qualitative performance in defensive boys are a function of defensiveness whereas such discripancies in quantitative performance are a function of certain salient components of the test situation, and (b) communication is less effective in families of HD boys than in families of LD boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Training impulsive children to talk to themselves: A means of developing self-control.

Examined the efficacy of a cognitive self-instructional (SI) training procedure in altering the behavior of impulsive school children. Study I, with 15 2nd graders, employed an individual training procedure which required the impulsive child to talk to himself, initially overtly and then covertly, in an attempt to increase self-control. Results indicate that the SI group improved significantly relative to attentional and assessment control groups on the Porteus Maze Test, performance IQ on the WISC, and on a measure of cognitive impulsivity. The improved performance was evident in a 1-mo follow-up assessment. Study II, with 8 kindergartners and 7 1st graders, examined the efficacy of the components of the cognitive treatment procedure in altering the impulsive child's performance. Results indicate that cognitive modeling alone was sufficient to slow down the impulsive child's response time for initial selection, but only with the addition of SI training was there a significant decrease in errors. Treatment and research implications of modifying S's cognitions are discussed. (45 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of neuropsychological functioning in Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia

Neuropsychological changes distinguishing mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) from frontotemporal dementia (FTD) have been described, but empirical verification of differential cognitive characteristics is lacking. Archival neuropsychological data on 15 FTD patients, 16 AD patients, and 16 controls were compared. Controls outperformed both patient groups on measures of verbal and nonverbal memory, executive ability, and constructional skill, with AD patients showing more widespread memory decline. No differences were found between the 3 groups in confrontation naming, recognition memory, or basic attention. Patient groups differed only in nonverbal memory, with FTD patients performing significantly better than AD patients. However, patient groups also differed in pattern of performance across executive and memory domains. Specifically, AD patients exhibited significantly greater impairment on memory than executive tasks, whereas the opposite pattern characterized the FTD group. These findings suggest that examination of relative rankings of scores across cognitive domains, in addition to interpretation of individual neuropsychological scores, may be useful in differential diagnosis of FTD versus AD.     

Convergent and discriminant validity of measures of cognitive styles and abilities.

Used 10 measures (e.g., Group Embedded Figures Test, Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices) that yielded 15 scores representing the following constructs: analytic style, global style, analytic ability, global ability, and general spatial ability. 50 undergraduates participated. In a factor analysis, the ability measures formed an ability factor, but the stylistic measures failed to converge and formed 4 factors. The Group Embedded Figures Test correlated significantly with the ability measures, but with only 1 of the 2 analytic measures, and it failed to correlate negatively with any global style measure. Most Ss preferred an analytic approach. Results indicate that present field dependence–independence measures are best interpreted as ability tests rather than measures of a cognitive style. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some ego functions associated with delay of gratification in male delinquents.

Compared 2 groups of 20 institutionalized adolescent delinquent males, matched for age and IQ, on measures of (a) foresight and planning ability, (b) impulsiveness, (c) verbal delay of gratification, (d) internal vs. external control, and (e) adjustment ratings, using the nonverbal Porteus Maze Tests. The experimental group consisted of Ss who had chosen to live in a special cottage and attend public school even though this choice was made with the understanding that it would delay their release from the institution. The control group consisted of Ss from the remaining cottages. The 2 groups differed in the hypothesized direction on measures of impulsiveness, verbal delay of gratification, and internal vs. external control, but not on measures of foresight and planning ability or adjustment ratings. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Antisocial personality disorder, childhood delinquency, and frontal brain functioning: EEG and neuropsychological findings

This experiment examined the ability of EEG activity and neuropsychological testing to predict both antisocial personality disorder (ASP) and retrospective self-ratings of early childhood problem behaviors (CPB). Regression analyses found that increased frontal left-hemisphere EEG activation was associated with a decreased likelihood of the diagnosis of ASP or CPB. An association was also found between several motor tests of the Luria-Nebraska and Porteus Maze Test scores and CPB/ASP. The current findings suggest that ASP and CPB are associated with variations in frontal lobe functioning. They further suggest that disturbances in prefrontal functioning may be a common biological ground that links ASP, substance abuse, and biological mechanisms of reinforcement.     

Neuropsychological stability in multiple sclerosis.

Compared the neuropsychological performances of 14 patients who had multiple sclerosis (MS) and who received repeated testings spaced over time by at least 1 yr with identical evaluations of 14 patients who had neurological involvement but not MS. Ss in each group were individually matched on CA at first testing (38.0 yrs for MS Ss and 37.0 yrs for controls), length of test-retest interval, sex, and years of formal education. Tests included the WAIS, the Wide Range Achievement Test, the Tactual Performance Test, the Seashore Rhythm Test, the Finger Angosia Test, and the Maze Coordination Test among others. Performance decrements attributable to the demyelination process of MS were primarily manifested on tasks requiring motor proficiency or complex sensory discriminations. Tests of higher order cognitive functions (e.g., abstractions, speech perception) were less adversely affected, except for measures having significant motor components. Preliminary MMPI data are also presented. Results indicate relative preservation or only mild deterioration for most intellectual abilities despite worsened motor-sensory functioning. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Construct validity of material-specific memory measures following unilateral temporal lobe ablations.

Material-specific memory test performance of 18 left (LTL), and 11 right (RTL), unilateral temporal lobectomy patients was assessed pre- and 1 wk postsurgery. The Selective Reminding Test (H. Buschke and P. A. Fuld; see record 1975-07695-001) and the Serial Digit Learning Test (A. L. Benton et al, 1983) were the verbal, and the Complex Figure Test and the Form Sequence Learning Test (K. Hamster et al, 1983) were the nonverbal, learning measures. Following surgery, LTLs showed significant reductions on both verbal memory tests, but no significant decline was observed in RTLs on the nonverbal memory measures' summary scores. Results suggest that Selective Reminding and Serial Digit Learning tests are sensitive to left temporal lesions but that Complex Figure and Form Sequence Learning tests, and by extension other nonverbal learning tests, should be interpreted cautiously with respect to unilateral temporal lobe dysfunction. Reasons for the difficulty in finding "pure" measures of visual learning are discussed, and suggestions for future nonverbal memory test development are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychometric properties of two measures of intrinsic motivation

Howard's Maze Test and Maw and Maw's Which-to-Discuss Test were individually administered to 25 educable mentally retarded junior high school students. Although the internal consistency of both tests was acceptably high (.81 to .90, respectively), scores were essentially unrelated to a host of demographic and other types of variables. Moreover, the correlation between scores on the two instruments was only -.06. It was suggested that the tests might better be described as measures of diversive curiosity and specific curiosity, respectively, than as measures of intrinsic motivation.     

The behavioral pathology in Alzheimer's Disease Scale (BEHAVE-AD): factor structure among community-dwelling Alzheimer's disease patients

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to (a) determine the factor structure of the Behavioral Pathology in Alzheimer's Disease Scale (BEHAVE-AD), and (b) examine the associations of the observed factors to the level of cognitive impairment. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study of geriatric patients evaluated at an outpatient memory disorders clinic. SAMPLE: One hundred and fifty-one consecutive patients diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease (AD) according to NINCDS-ADRDA diagnostic criteria. RESULTS: Principal factors analysis with Varimax rotation resulted in a five-factor solution that accounted for 40.0% of the common variance. The factors included agitation/anxiety (agitation, anxiety of upcoming events; other anxiety), psychosis (delusions of theft, suspiciousness/paranoia; visual hallucinations), aggression (verbal aggressiveness; physical threats/violence; fear of being left alone; other delusions), depression (tearfulness; depressed mood) and activity disturbance (wandering; delusion one's house is not one's home). Several factors were associated with level of cognitive impairment as assessed by the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that the BEHAVE-AD measures a wide range of behavioral pathology that can be empirically represented by five independent symptom clusters among outpatient AD patients.     

Modeling aptitude test validity from cognitive components.

Cognitive component analysis of aptitude tests has developed in response to concerns about the nature of the capabilities that are reflected in test scores; as yet cognitive components have not been examined as ability measures in their own right. The current study with test data from 104 undergraduates (i.e., 45 verbal items from the Cognitive Ability Test and the Lorge-Thorndyke Intelligence Test and 35 verbal analogies as aptitude and component scores, and American College Testing Program Examination scores as measures of achievement) examined component validity by using covariance modeling to test hypotheses about the relationships between components, aptitude, and achievement. Support was found for cognitive components to (a) model individual differences in verbal aptitude, (b) decompose test validity (i.e., explain correlations with external measures), and (c) differentially predict achievement. Across-item equivalency of comparable components was not supported, even when content differences were controlled. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Severity of cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease affects list learning using the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT)

Impairment in list learning is considered a primary symptom of Alzheimer's disease (AD), yet there are no published reports examining the relationship between list learning and severity of cognitive impairment. We gave nine-item and 16-item versions of the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT; Delis et al., 1987), a standardized shopping list assessment of memory, to 24 AD patients (mean age = 76.2 +/- 8.1; mean years of education = 13.8 +/- 2.4), who were stratified into four groups based on MMSE scores (mean = 16.0 +/- 5.6). ANOVAs revealed severity effects for total list learning (p < 0.001), the first trial (p < 0.001), the last trial (p < 0.001) and short- and long-delay recall measures. Most of these differences seemed due to floor effects. For example, the modal number of words recalled after a delay was 0 by subjects with MMSE scores below 21. Severity of cognitive impairment was associated with the proportion of intrusions such that the most severely demented subjects gave almost entirely intrusion responses. Surprisingly, list length did not significantly affect any of the free recall measures. Our results suggest that list learning and recall seem to be lost relatively early in AD. Measures of list recall like the CVLT may not be useful in tracking severity of cognitive impairment over time.     

Neuropsychological correlates of urine toxicology results

1. The present study evaluated neuropsychological differences among 4 groups of men and women, aged 15 to 61 years. The groups were defined on the basis of urine toxicology screens indicating recent cocaine (n = 12), cannabis (n = 14), or multiple drug (n = 7) use, or no such use (n = 21). 2. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R), the Trail Making Tests, and the Porteus Maze Test were administered to all subjects. 3. Analyses revealed no significant differences between the groups in age, gender composition, or in the proportion of group members with personal histories of alcohol/drug abuse or dependence, or Anti-Social Personality Disorder. 4. The cocaine positive group exhibited statistically significant impairments in Verbal IQ, as well as on Information, Vocabulary, Comprehension, Picture Completion, and Trails B subtests. The other experimental groups did not differ from the urine negative group.     

Neuropsychological correlates of single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) in Alzheimer's disease.

Examined associations between regional cortical perfusion on SPECT scans and cognitive test performance in 15 patients (mean age 67.1 yrs) with probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) of mild to moderate severity. The degree and extent of decreased perfusion of SPECT scans was associated with severity of AD and neuropsychological test scores correlated with findings of lateralized perfusion deficits on SPECT scans. Perfusion deficits on SPECT scans were also associated with estimates of global changes in intellectual functioning. Instruments included the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R), the Mini-Mental State Examination, the Aphasia Screening Test, and the Trail Making Test. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factor analysis of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale subtests and the Halstead-Reitan Category and Tapping tests.

Scores from 94 psychiatric and neurological patients on the 11 subtests of the WAIS and the Halstead-Reitan Category and Finger Tapping Tests were used in a factor analysis. The Category Test had a low loading on the 1st (Verbal) factor and a high loading on the 2nd (Visuomotor) factor; the Tapping Test had a high loading on a small 4th factor of Manipulative Speed. The finding with the Category Test suggests that it, contrary to the expectation of many of its users, does not distinguish an ability that is both separate from nonverbal intelligence and particularly sensitive to all types of brain pathology. It is concluded that visuomotor and verbal factor scores might be more efficient than conventional scores in studies of the effects of brain damage. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The organization of student performance in American schools: Discipline, motivation, verbal learning, nonverbal learning.

Standardized measures of cognitive ability, academic achievement, classroom learning behavior, and school social-emotional adjustment were administered for a nationally representative sample of 1,268 students aged 6–17 years. Exploratory and confirmatory latent structure analyses revealed 4 distinct and reliable student performance factors (Disciplined Behavior, Motivation, Verbal Learning, Nonverbal Learning) that were generalizable to age, sex, and ethnic subgroups within the national sample. The performance factors showed substantial and consistent relationships to independent measure of school achievement (grades, test scores) and to observations of problem behavior. Differential patterns for age, sex, and ethnic groups were discovered, including female superiority for disciplined behavior, verbal learning, and motivation, and male superiority for nonverbal learning, with unique pattern variations for some ethnic minority students. Theoretical implications are explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-efficacy, locus of control, self-assessment of memory ability, and study activities as predictors of college course achievement.

A stepwise multiple-regression analysis of the final grades of 184 students in an introductory psychology course revealed that scores on a self-assessment measure of memory ability (the Everyday Memory Questionnaire) were the best predictors of final course grades, followed by scores on a locus of control measure and scores on the Self-Concept of Academic Ability Test. Of the 14 subscales from the Study Activity Survey, only the cognitive scale of Focus on Test Relevance and the 2 self-management scales of Assiduous Resource Management and Means of Resource Management were significant predictors of course achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)