Attributions of learning disabled children.

Two studies compared learning disabled (LD) and normally achieving (NA) children's attribution patterns of success and failure in achievement and in social situations. In Study 1, 37 LD and 67 NA 7th and 8th graders were interviewed about attributions for hypothetical success–failure situations. 75 LD and 30 NA Ss (aged 9–17 yrs) from private schools were interviewed about attributions for real-life ratings of success in Study 2. NA Ss in both studies followed the expected pattern of attributing success more internally and failure (or less success) more externally. LD Ss attributed success to internal factors as well, but in both studies they also externalized success more than did the NA Ss. In their attributions for failure (or less success), the LD Ss in both studies did not follow the expected pattern. It is concluded that attributional differences between the LD Ss may reflect differences in self-esteem, expectations, and uncertainty. Careful reconsideration of the potentially negative consequences of attributional retraining of children with learning problems is recommended. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The neuropsychological significance of lateral preference for complex visual activities in children with learning disabilities

In the present study the relationship between neuropsychological functioning and lateral preference for visual activities was examined with learning disordered children. Specifically, the relationship between measures of the Lateral Dominance Exam (LDE), scores on the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery (HRNB), and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) were explored. A canonical analysis suggested that composites of neuropsychological functioning and lateral preference shared 22% of variance. Learning disabled children with strong right or left preference for visually guided motor activities showed lower performance in spatial tasks on the ipsilateral side and in simple motor skills on the contralateral side. Children in the present study with strong right preference patterns for visually assisted motor activities also showed low performance on visual tracking tasks. These data offer some support for assessing lateral preference in learning disabled children.     

Relationship of security of attachment to exploration and cognitive mapping abilities in 2-year-olds.

28 children aged 30–34 mo who had been assessed at 12 mo of age for security of attachment were observed exploring with their mothers in a large-scale laboratory space and were then given tasks to assess their knowledge of that space. After learning a specific route through the space to a goal, Ss were required to invent new routes to the goal. Results indicate that Ss who had been classified as securely attached explored relatively more independently and had less restricted patterns of exploration than did anxiously attached Ss. They also scored higher on tasks on spatial ability. It is proposed that individual differences in security of attachment, mode of exploration, and cognitive mapping abilities exert mutual effects on each other throughout early development. Findings indicate that security of attachment affects later competence in environmental adaptation. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early identification of learning disabilities: A comparison of two methods.

Computed discrepancy scores (multiple regression equations using IQs from the Slosson Intelligence Test, SES, sex, and age of child to predict reading and math achievement raw scores) and an unadjusted low-achievement criterion (discrepancy between achievement and potential) for 218 1st graders from normal classrooms in 6 rural elementary schools. In addition to determining the predictor variables already mentioned, the authors also administered the Behavior Problem Checklist, the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test for Children, the Visual Matching subtest of the Metropolitan Readiness Test, Level I—Form P, the Wepman Auditory Discrimination Test, and measures of audio-visual integration, handedness, finger localization, finger tapping, lateral dominance, letter and number recognition, motor coordination, name writing, and quantitative concepts. A rating of academic performance was obtained from each teacher. Data show that unadjusted low-achievement criteria misidentified as learning disabled (LD) a significant number of Ss who were achieving at levels commensurate with overall abilities, while failing to identify a significant number of truly LD children. Many of the variables that significantly discriminated low achievers from high achievers did not significantly discriminate LD from non-LD children. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of directed attention on cerebral asymmetries in normal and learning-disabled children.

Using a dichotic listening task employing both undirected and directed attention conditions, cerebral asymmetries were examined in matched populations of 32 normal and 32 learning-disabled (LD) children (ages 7 yrs 6 mo–13 yrs 2 mo). The analysis of recall performance indicated that development was not a significant factor in either group; both the normal and LD Ss showed a right-ear effect, although the LD Ss performed at a degraded level and were unable to demonstrate a right-ear advantage (REA) when attention was directed to the left ear, unlike normal Ss, who produced the REA despite the directed attention conditions. Results suggest that LD children probably do not suffer from developmental delays but rather from a defect in callosal functioning that interferes with their ability to process verbal information simultaneously. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comprehension-monitoring skills in learning-disabled children.

Compared comprehension-monitoring skills of learning disabled (LD) and normal elementary school children. Comprehension monitoring, the ability to evaluate one's level of understanding incoming messages, was assessed in the context of a game-learning task. Ss were 12 younger LD boys (7–8 yrs old), 12 older LD boys (9–10 yrs old), and 12 younger and 10 older normal boys matched on age and IQ. No age effects were observed. The major finding was that relative to the matched normal Ss, LD Ss were deficient in comprehension-monitoring skills. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental changes in concept utilization among normal and retarded children.

Examined the concepts employed by 100 normal children in kindergarten-Grade 4 (Study 1), and by 48 retarded vs 48 normal children matched for mental ages ranging from 5 to 11 yrs (Study 2). Ss were required to select pairs of pictures from a large array of pictures depicting common objects and to explain the basis for their pairing responses. Factor analysis of the conceptual responses of normal Ss revealed factors for abstraction (nominal and functional concepts as opposed to perceptible concepts) and complimentarity ("go together" responses as opposed to similarity responses). Retarded Ss differed from normals primarily in their use of more complimentary and fewer similarity concepts. The developmental course of concept utilization for normals was characterized as a change from perceptible to nominal and functional concepts, while that for retarded Ss was characterized as a change from complimentary to similarity concepts. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attributions of learning disabled children: Individual differences and their implications for persistence.

It has been shown that learning disabled (LD) children are likely to develop a maladaptive pattern of causal attributions. However, it is unclear whether LD children are more likely to differ from their peers in terms of a greater tendency to attribute their difficulties to insufficient ability or in terms of a greater tendency to blame external factors. The authors investigated this issue in 24 LD boys and 14 LD girls in Grades 3–5 and in 38 age-, sex-, race-, and IQ-matched normal controls. Ss were asked to complete scales assessing attributions for academic difficulties; 2 wks later, Ss were presented with a reading task for which persistence was measured. It was found that LD girls were significantly more likely than nondisabled girls to attribute their difficulties to insufficient ability, but girls did not differ in their tendency to attribute their difficulties to external factors. In contrast, LD boys were significantly more likely than nondisabled boys to attribute their difficulties to external factors, but they did not differ from nondisabled boys in their tendency to attribute their difficulties to insufficient ability. Although the tendency to blame one's ability was negatively related to reading task persistence, the tendency to attribute one's difficulties to external factors did not show this negative relation. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vowel generalization in normal and learning disabled readers.

Studied vowel–sound associations in 20 learning disabled (LD) children, 20 normal readers matched with the LD children for reading vocabulary (the VM group), and 20 normal readers matched with the LD sample on age (the AM group). All Ss were drawn from a population of LD and normal children in Grades 2–6 in a middle-class school district. The 3 groups were given the Vowel Generalization Test, which includes 25 regularly spelled words, 25 irregularly spelled words, and 25 nonsense words. Responses to each of the 3 item sets were scored according to vowel pronunciation (regular, irregular, and ungeneralized—vowel responses that are never signaled by the orthographic construction of a particular word), consonant pronunciation (correct or incorrect), and overall correctness. Results of ANOVA with post hoc comparisons showed that the LD and AM groups differed on all measures. However, comparisons of the LD and VM groups primarily revealed a tendency of the LD Ss to apply regular vowel associations less frequently and to apply ungeneralized vowel associations more frequently than the VM group. It is concluded that LD children are less likely than normal readers to apply major pattern associations in decoding unknown words and tend instead to produce vowel sounds that are never signaled by the particular orthographic construction. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations: Reward-induced changes in preference for complexity.

Intrinsic motivational orientations are characterized by preference for activities that are relatively complex, challenging, and entertaining. Extrinsic motivational orientations are characterized by preference for activities that are relatively simple, predictable, and easily completed. The introduction of task-contingent reward fosters an extrinsic motivational orientation, and this orientation may carry over into subsequent unrewarded interactions with the activity. To test this analysis, 30 2nd graders in Study 1 played with a novel game of intermediate complexity in 1 of 3 conditions: no reward, task-noncontingent reward, or task-contingent reward. In a subsequent free-choice period, simple, intermediate, and complex versions of the game, as well as several other activities, were available. As predicted, contingent-reward Ss showed the strongest preference for the simple versions of the game, while no-reward Ss tended to prefer the intermediate version. Task-noncontingent-reward Ss showed a strong preference for the most complex version of the game. In Study 2 with 54 4th graders, the effects of reward on simple and intermediate-complexity tasks were replicated. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive abilities in Inuit and White children from similar environments.

Previous studies have emphasized the differential abilities of Inuit and White children, concluding that the Inuit have well developed spatial abilities and less well developed verbal-educational and inductive reasoning abilities when compared with White Ss. However, in many studies White and Inuit Ss have not been matched for either socioeconomic status or grade placement. The present study examined Inuit and White Ss from subsistence level fishing communities. Ss were 22 Inuit 1st graders with a mean age of 84.2 mo and White 1st graders as follows: 14 with a mean age of 89.4 mo, 16 with a mean of 83.1, and 22 with a mean of 86 mo. Vocabulary and arithmetic tests adapted from the Wechsler Pre-School and Primary Scale of Intelligence were utilized. There were no significant differences between Inuit and White Ss in spatial, verbal-educational, or inductive reasoning abilities. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Natural history of sucking patterns in infant goats: A comparative study.

Examined temporal organization of sucking patterns, the phase interaction of sucking and other rhythmical motor patterns, and the effects of feeding on sucking rate in 26 Nubian goats. No changes in sucking rate were noted over the 1st 3 mo. The precise rate concordance between sucking and tail movements suggested that peripheral motor rhythms are regulated by a central sequencing mechanism which in turn is modulated by organismic and peripheral factors. A comparison of sucking patterns in 10 human infants and Ss indicates that qualitative species differences in the prefunctional organization of sucking influence the nature of the interaction between sucking performance and organismic or peripheral factors. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An evaluation of empathic listening in telephone counseling.

Two counseling-analog studies compared empathic-listening and active advice-giving styles of telephone counseling; Ss were 88 undergraduates (81 "callers" and 7 "helpers"). Nonsignificant trends of preference for the advice-giving style in Study 1 led to the comparison in Study 2 of these same styles with a 3rd combined counselor role. Results consistently indicate significant participant preference for active advice giving on overall call evaluation and on the 2 major factors (Helpfulness of Call and Helper Likability) of the evaluation questionnaire. Implications of the findings for paraprofessional training and outcome evaluation of ongoing telephone-counseling services are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparative analysis of attentional deficits in hyperactive and learning-disabled children.

Compared 14 boys (aged 7–9 yrs) with attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADDH), 12 with learning disability (LD), 12 with ADDH-LD, and 13 normal boys on measures of sustained attention, selective attention, and span of apprehension. Unique patterns of attentional deficits were associated with each of the diagnostic groups. The ADDH Ss with and without learning disabilities exhibited sustained attention deficits. The LD Ss evidenced selective attention deficits on a speeded classification task. The LD and ADDH-LD Ss evidenced recall difficulties on a paired-associate task, regardless of distractor presence. The 3 clinical groups performed more poorly than did the normal group on the span of apprehension measure. Although attentional deficits were most pervasive in the ADDH-LD group, multivariate composites of attentional variables were sensitive to the ADDH and LD dimensions. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuropsychological abilities of young children with questionable brain disorders.

Neuropsychological test data, including the WISC, the Wide Range Achievement Test, and the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery, were collected on 31 6–8 yr olds with a history of serious illness or trauma suspected of causing brain injury. These Ss with questionable brain disorder were compared with a similar group of 31 Ss who had no history of possible brain disorder. Results show that 10 of the neuropsychological variables significantly differentiated Ss with questionable brain disorder from normals. Stepwise discriminant function analyses revealed that a select battery of 5 variables had a classification accuracy rate of 72.6%. The data show noteworthy deficits in Ss with questionable brain disorder, particularly in motor and visual-motor abilities and in functions involving the nondominant hand. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Circadian rhythms in food intake and activity in domestic cats.

Examined the daily patterns of food intake and activity in normal and pontile-lesioned adult cats. Food intake in the dark and light phases of the light–dark (LD) cycles was determined separately by weighing the food, and a percentage nocturnal score was calculated. The measure of activity was infrared photobeam interruptions, with the photobeam placed in front of the cages, over the food bowl. No differences between normal and pontile-lesioned Ss were detected for any of the measures. Ss' food intake was influenced by simulated starlight and moonlight conditions and by the presence of humans. Ss in isolation from humans and human noises exhibited random patterns of activity in constant light and free-running circadian rhythms in constant dark. Idiosyncratic differences in entrainment to LD cycles were found among the Ss. The relevance of this variability is noted for studies of photoperiodic phenomena in this species. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interaction of test anxiety and success-failure experiences in determining children's arithmetic performance.

Studied the effects of the motives to approach success and to avoid failure in 60 5th and 6th grade boys and girls of low, middle, and high levels of test anxiety (Test Anxiety Scale for Children and Lie Scale for Children). Ss performed addition problems under 1 of 2 conditions: a mixed condition involving two-thirds success and one-third failure under time pressure and a success only condition in which all problems attempted were completed. As predicted, high anxious Ss, when compared to less anxious Ss on response rate, errors, and cheating, showed markedly inferior performance in the mixed condition, but comparable and improved performance in the success only condition. Findings indicate that anxious children perform poorly due to motivational difficulties rather than to learning deficiencies, and that their abilities are systematically underestimated by many achievement and educational testing procedures. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of schooling on arithmetical understandings: Studies with Oksapmin children in Papua New Guinea.

Examined the influence of Western schooling on the development of arithmetical understandings in a total of 71 children from Grades 2, 4, and 6 and in 22 nonschooled adolescents from a nontechnological culture, the Oksapmin of Papua New Guinea. The indigenous number system of the Oksapmin consists of 27 conventionally defined points on the body. Although arithmetical activities are not a part of traditional life for the Oksapmin, in the recently introduced Western school setting, Ss must solve arithmetical problems as a part of everyday classroom activities. In Study 1, school Ss were observed during an arithmetic test. In Study 2, all Ss were interviewed about solution strategies to presented problems. Results show that Ss not only spontaneously used the indigenous system in the context of school arithmetic, but also created new forms of numerical symbolization and calculation based on that system to deal with the school arithmetical problems, a developmental process that occurred without the aid of instruction. Discussion focuses on the nature of the novel conceptual developments, factors mediating the schooling effect, and the influence of prior knowledge on learning from instruction in children from diverse ethnic backgrounds. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Story comprehension and recall in learning-disabled versus normal college students.

24 learning-disabled (LD) and 24 normal college students rated stories on the importance of their idea units. LD Ss showed significantly less agreement on their importance ratings than the normal Ss. Ss also selected 12 idea units as retrieval cues, one group before and the other after recall. This task showed that normal Ss selecting cues after recall used a different strategy than those selecting cues before recall; LD Ss did not vary their cue-selection strategy as a function of experience. In spite of these differences, recall increased significantly at higher importance levels for both ability groups, and recall did not differ for LD and normal Ss who selected retrieval cues after recall. Cue selection before recall, however, depressed performance of LD Ss relative to that of the normal Ss. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning disabilities, locus of control, and mother attitudes.

Academic locus of control and mothers' school-related reactions and expectations were studied in 81 learning disabled (LD) and 81 normally achieving (control) children in Grades 3–6. The Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire, the Intellectual subscale of the Parent Reaction Questionnaire, and the Parents Version of the Projected Academic Performance Scale were used. LD Ss indicated more external perceptions of control with respect to successful academic experiences. For failure outcomes, no difference between LD and control Ss was found; however, a trend toward increased internality was noted over grade levels for both groups. Mothers of LD Ss reported more negative and fewer positive reactions to their children. They also held lower academic performance expectations for their children than control mothers. Results are discussed in terms of the need to develop more internal control perceptions in LD children and the role of parental attitudes and expectations in school learning. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)