A study of tensile properties in Al–Si–Cu and Al–Si–Mg alloys: Effect of β-iron intermetallics and porosity

The effect of β-iron intermetallics and porosity on the tensile properties in cast Al–Si–Cu and Al–Si–Mg alloys were investigated for this research study, using experimental and industrial 319.2 alloys, and industrial A356.2 alloys. The results showed that the alloy ductility and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) were subject to deterioration as a result of an increase in the size of β-iron intermetallics, most noticeable up to β-iron intermetallic lengths of 100 μm in 319.2 alloys, or 70 μm in A356.2 alloys. An increase in the size of the porosity was also deleterious to alloy ductility and UTS. Although tensile properties are interpreted by means of UTS vs. log elongation plots in the present study, the properties for all sample conditions were best interpreted by means of log UTS vs. log elongation plots, where the properties increased linearly between conditions of low cooling rate–high Fe and high cooling rate–low Fe. The results are explained in terms of the β-Al₅FeSi platelet size and porosity values obtained.     

Hot compressive deformation behavior and microstructure evolution of Ti–6Al–2Zr–1Mo–1V alloy at 1073 K

Hot compressive behaviors of Ti–6Al–2Zr–1Mo–1V alloy at 1073 K, as well as the evolution of microstructure during deformation process, were investigated in this paper. The results shows that flow stress increases up to a peak stress, then decease with increasing strain, and forms a stable stage at last. The grain size also shows an decrease at first and increase after a minimum value. Dislocations are observed to produce at the interface of α/β phase, and the phase interface and dislocation circle play an important role in impeding the movement of dislocation. As strain increase, micro-deformation bands with high-density dislocation are founded, and dynamic recrystallization occurs.     

Forging of Mg–3Al–1Zn–1Ca alloy prepared by high-frequency electromagnetic casting

The 1 wt.%Ca–AZ31 alloy produced by electromagnetic casting (EMC) in presence of electromagnetic stirring (EMS) was extruded and then subjected to the closed-die forging to make a pulley for automobile application. Effective dynamic recrystallization (DRX) took place during the forging process, leading to formation of fully recrystallized grains with the average size of 3–4 μm. High-forging ability and high degree of grain refinement achieved during the forging were attributed to the novel microstructure of the cast composed of small and equiaxed grains with the average size of 50 μm and thin layer (Al, Mg)₂ Ca phase at grain boundaries, which would provide more nucleation sites and a faster rate of recrystallization during deformation by forging as compared to that of the conventionally processed cast composed of large size grains and thick layer (Al, Mg)₂ Ca phase. The forged pulley exhibited the ultimate tensile strength of 273–286 MPa with tensile elongations of 30%. The present result demonstrates a possibility that EMC + EMS techniques can be used in producing magnesium feed stocks with high-forging ability.     

Effect of loading rate on the monotonic tensile behavior and tensile strength of an oxide–oxide ceramic composite at 1200 °C

The influence of loading rate on monotonic tensile behavior and tensile properties of an oxide–oxide ceramic composite was evaluated in laboratory air at 1200 °C. The composite consists of a porous alumina matrix reinforced with woven mullite/alumina (Nextel™720) fibers, has no interface between the fiber and matrix, and relies on the porous matrix for flaw tolerance. Tensile tests conducted at loading rates of 0.0025 and 25 MPa/s revealed a strong effect of rate on the stress–strain behavior as well as on the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), elastic modulus and failure strain. At 0.0025 MPa/s, increase in stress results in non-monotonic change in strain, with the rate of change of strain reversing its sign at stresses 25 MPa/s. Several samples were subjected to additional heat treatments prior to testing in order to determine whether this unusual stress–strain behavior was an artifact of incomplete processing of fibers in the as-received material. The unusual material response in the 0–30 MPa stress range was further investigated in creep tests conducted with the applied stresses ≤26 MPa. Negative creep (i.e. decrease in strain under constant stress) was observed. Porosity measurements indicate that a decrease in matrix porosity and matrix densification may be taking place in the N720/A composite exposed to 1200 °C at stresses <30 MPa for prolonged periods of time.     

A constitutive model for high strain rate deformation in FCC metals based on irreversible thermodynamics

The present work extends a recent model for plastic deformation of polycrystalline metals based on irreversible thermodynamics. A general dislocation evolution equation is derived for a wide range of strain rates. It is found that there is a transitional strain rate (10³ s⁻¹) over which the phonon drag effects play a dominant role in dislocation generation resulting in a significant raise in the dislocation density and flow stress. The model reduces to the classical Kocks–Mecking model at low strain rates.     

Influence of Cu addition on the self-propagating high-temperature synthesis of Ti5Si3 in Cu–Ti–Si system

The self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) reactions can take place in Cu–Ti–Si systems with Cu additions of 10–50 wt.%, and the products only consist of Ti₅Si₃ and Cu phases, without any transient phase. In Ti–Si system, most of the Ti₅Si₃ grains synthesized exhibit the polygon-shaped coarse appearance with an obviously sintered morphology. When Cu content increases from 10 to 50 wt.%, however, the Ti₅Si₃ exhibits cobblestone-like shape with a relatively smooth surface, and its average size decreases significantly from 15 to 2 μm or less. The formation mechanism of Ti₅Si₃ in Cu–Ti–Si system is characterized by the solution, reaction and precipitation processes. Furthermore, the addition of Cu has a great influence on the volume change between green and reacted preforms. The volume change increases with Cu content increasing from 0 to 20 wt.%, and then decreases with the content further increasing from 20 to 50 wt.%. The addition of Cu to Ti–Si system significantly decreases the onset temperature of the reaction during differential scanning calorimetry process, which is even much lower than the α → β transition temperature of Ti (882 °C), suggesting that the reaction could be greatly facilitated by Cu addition. As a result, the role of Cu serves not only as a diluent but also as a reactant and participates in the self-propagating high-temperature synthesis reaction process.     

Thermomechanical processing of Ti–5Al–5Mo–5V–3Cr

The constitutive behaviour and microstructural evolution of the near-β alloy Ti–5Al–5Mo–5V–3Cr in the α + β condition has been characterised during isothermal subtransus forging at a range of temperatures and strain rates. The results indicate that Ti–5Al–5Mo–5V–3Cr has a shallower approach curve, and therefore, offers a more controllable microstructure than the near-β alloy Ti–10V–2Fe–3Al. Flow softening is small in magnitude in both alloys in the α + β condition. The steady state flow stresses obey a Norton–Hoff constitutive law with an activation energy of Q = 183 kJ mol⁻¹, which is similar to the activation energy for self-diffusion in the β phase, suggesting deformation is dominated by dynamic recovery in the β matrix. Good evidence is found for the existence of ω phase after both air cooling and water quenching from above the β transus. In addition, dissolution of the α phase is found to be slow at near-transus temperatures.     

The tensile deformation behavior of Ti–3Al–4.5V–5Mo titanium alloy

The tensile deformation behavior of Ti–3Al–4.5V–5Mo titanium alloy was studied. The results show that there are obvious yield points on true stress–true strain curves of annealing structures, then a stress drop occurs. The curves show linear work-softening after yielding at annealing temperature of 720–780 °C and linear work-hardening at annealing temperature of 800–840 °C. Elastic energy stored in the α-phase is dramatically released after plastic deformation of the β-phase, which leads to the stress drop.     

Dielectric and electrostrictive properties of PMNT near MPB

The dielectric constant (ε_r), dielectric loss (tan δ) and strain induced by electric field in lead magnesium niobate–lead titanate (PMN-PT/PMNT) solid solutions in the morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) region at different sintering temperatures have been studied. ε_r and tan δ increase, whereas Curie phase transition range decreases with the increase in sintering temperature. Strain levels in the range of 0.07–0.2% were obtained. A high saturated strain% 0.19, a high d₃₃ coefficient 320 pm/V and a low strain hysteresis% 3.5 in PMNT 68/32 composition sintered at 1200 °C indicate its suitability for actuator applications.     

Mechanical and thermal properties of AlN–BN–SiC ceramics

Mechanical and thermal properties were characterized for two AlN:BN:SiC composite ceramics produced from BN with different particle sizes. The ceramics were hot pressed at temperatures from 1950 to 2100 °C to 97% relative density. For both materials, the matrix (90:10 vol% SiC:AlN) had a grain size of 0.4 μm, and the BN grains (10 vol%) were crystallographically aligned. Microhardness values were between 20 and 22 GPa, while fracture toughness values were between 2.5 and 3.1 MPa m^1/2. Other properties were found to be dependent on testing direction. Elastic moduli were between 260 and 300 GPa and strengths were 630 MPa for small particle BN additions. Thermal conductivity was calculated to be between 25 and 37 W/m K at room temperature and 17 and 25 W/m K at 900 °C. The low values compared to traditional SiC ceramics were attributed to AlN–SiC solid solution formation and sub-micron matrix grain sizes.     

Constitutive analysis to predict high-temperature flow stress in modified 9Cr–1Mo (P91) steel

Constitutive analysis for hot working of modified 9Cr–1Mo (P91) ferritic steel was carried out employing experimental stress–strain data from isothermal hot compression tests, in a wide range of temperatures (1123–1373 K), strains (0.1–0.5) and strain rates (10⁻³–10² s⁻¹). The effects of temperature and strain rate on deformation behaviour were represented by Zener–Hollomon parameter in an exponent-type equation. The influence of strain was incorporated in the constitutive equation by considering the effect of strain on different material constants. Activation energy was found to vary with strain in the range 369–391 kJ mol⁻¹. The developed constitutive equation (considering the compensation of strain) could predict flow stress of modified 9Cr–1Mo steel over the specified hot working domain with very good correlation and generalization.     

Effect of environment on fatigue crack growth in ultrafine grain Al–Mg

The fatigue crack growth rates, obtained in high vacuum and in ambient air, of ultrafine grain (UFG) Al–7.5Mg (grain size  250 nm) at various load ratios were compared to those of powder-metallurgy (P/M) Al–7Mg (grain size  2 μm) and ingot-metallurgy (I/M) Al–7Mg (grain size  100 μm). In both vacuum and ambient air, fatigue crack growth rates at all stress ratios decrease with increasing grain size. The fatigue crack growth threshold (ΔK_th) follows the reverse order, increasing with increasing grain size. These trends are interpreted in terms of fracture surface roughness effects that are correlated with grain size. In vacuum, the thresholds of all three materials exhibit no load ratio dependency at load ratios from 0.1 to 0.5. In air, the threshold of UFG Al–7.5Mg exhibits weak load ratio dependency, while P/M and I/M Al–7Mg exhibit modest load ratio dependency. The environmental effect on the fatigue crack growth rates is assessed by determining the difference in crack growth driving force (ΔK) between air and vacuum. It was found that the environmental contribution to the driving force of all three materials is similar, nearly independent of grain size.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of nanocrystalline high strength Al–Mg–Si (AA6061) alloy by high energy ball milling and spark plasma sintering

In the present paper, the microstructure and mechanical properties of nanostructured Al–Mg–Si based AA6061 alloy obtained by high energy ball milling and spark plasma sintering were reported. Gas atomized microcrystalline powder of AA6061 alloy was ball milled under wet condition at room temperature to obtain nanocrystalline powder with grain size of 30 nm. The nanocrystalline powder was consolidated to fully dense compacts by spark plasma sintering (SPS) at 500 °C. The grain size after SPS consolidation was found to be 85 nm. The resultant SPS compacts exhibited microhardness of 190–200 HV_100 g, compressive strength of 800 MPa and strain to fracture of 15%.     

Allotropic phase transformation of pure zirconium by high-pressure torsion

Pure Zr is processed by high-pressure torsion (HPT) at pressures in the range of 1–40 GPa. A phase transformation occurs from α to ω phase during HPT at pressures above 4 GPa while the total fraction of ω phase increases with straining and saturates to a constant level at higher strain. This phase transformation leads to microstructural refinement, hardness and strength enhancement and ductility reduction. Lattice parameter measurements confirm that c for α phase is expanded about 0.6% by the presence of ω phase. The temperature for reverse transformation from ω to α phase increases with straining and thus, straining under high pressure increases thermal stability of ω phase. The ω phase obtained by HPT is stable for more than 400 days at room temperature.     

Transformation mismatch plasticity in Pd induced by cyclic hydrogen charging

Transformation mismatch plasticity is achieved in swaged palladium wires by cyclical hydriding–dehydriding. Upon multiple cycles at ambient temperature, a total strain of 40% is accumulated under a constant tensile stress. This value is much higher than the tensile ductility for swaged Pd subjected to monotonic deformation without transformation (<2% for this wire). Strain increments after a single cycle are proportional to the applied stress, in agreement with the Greenwood–Johnson equation for transformation mismatch plasticity. The yield stress of hydrogen-cycled Pd calculated from this equation is 760 MPa, which is much higher than the value of the original wire and about 50% higher than previous values reported for Pd that was hydrogen cycled at 100 °C without an applied stress.     

Flow behavior and microstructural evolution of Al–Cu–Mg–Ag alloy during hot compression deformation

The flow behavior of Al–Cu–Mg–Ag alloy and its microstructural evolution during hot compression deformation were studied by thermal simulation test. The flow stress increased with increasing the strain rate, and decreased with increasing the deforming temperature, which can be described by a constitutive equation in hyperbolic sine function with the hot deformation activation energy 196.27 kJ/mol, and can also be described by a Zener–Hollomon parameter. The dynamic recrystallization only occurred at low Z values, which must be below or equal to a constant of 5.31 × 10¹³ s⁻¹. With decreasing Z value, the elongated grains coarsed and the tendency of dynamic recrystallization enhanced. Correspondingly, the subgrain size increased and the dislocation density decreased. And the main soften mechanism of the alloy transformed from dynamic recovery to dynamic recrystallization.     

Influence of additives on the impact toughness of Al–10.8% Si near-eutectic cast alloys

This article investigates the effects of melt treatment and addition of alloying elements on the impact toughness of as-cast and heat-treated Al–10.8% Si near-eutectic alloys. Increasingly precise impact behaviors are discussed in the context of differentiating between initiation and propagation energies, including the ductility index, which is the ratio of the propagation to initiation energies; total energy as a useful measure is also discussed. Details concerning the evaluation of tensile properties are reported in a separate article [Mohamed AMA, Samuel FH, Samuel AM, Doty HW. Influence of additives on the microstructure and tensile properties of near-eutectic Al–10.8%Si cast alloy. Mater Des, in press]. The concentration of elements in the alloys was changed to the following range: Fe 0.5–1 wt%, Mn 0.5–1 wt%, Cu 2.25–3.25 wt%, and Mg 0.3–0.5 wt%, while the impact toughness upon artificial aging in a temperature range of 155–240 °C for 5 h was also investigated. The results indicate that the morphology of fibrous Si in Sr-modified alloys enhances toughness because of its profound effect on crack initiation and crack propagation resistance. The combined addition of modifier and grain refiner leads to a 33% increase in the impact strength compared to the untreated alloy. In alloys containing high levels of iron, such as the RF2 (1% Fe, 1% Mn) and RF4 (1% Fe, 0.5% Mn) alloys, the addition of iron leads to an increased precipitation of sludge or β-Fe platelets, respectively; these particles also act as crack initiation sites and reduce the impact properties noticeably. In alloys already containing high levels of copper, such as the RC2 (3.25% Cu, 0.3% Mg) and RC5(0.3.25% Cu, 0.5% Mg) alloys, increasing the copper level lowers the impact properties significantly, in view of the fact that the fracture behavior is now predominantly influenced by the Al₂Cu phase rather than by the Si particles. The average crack propagation speed of impact-tested samples shows a good inverse relationship to impact energy. Crack propagation speed can thus provide a qualitative estimation of the impact energy expected for special alloy conditions.     

Investigation of the rotary swaging and heat treatment on the behavior of W- and γ-phases in PM 92.5W–5Ni–2.5Fe–0.26Co heavy alloy

The effects of rotary swaging and different heat treatment procedures on the W- and γ-phases behavior of PM 92.5W–5Ni–2.5Fe (wt.%) heavy alloy microalloyed with cobalt have been studied. The investigation was performed on sintered and cold rotary swaged samples deformed with area reduction from 5 to 30%. One batch of swaged samples was annealed in vacuum at 1473 K for 7.2 ks and then furnace-cooled to the room temperature, whereas another batch of swaged samples was previously deformed 30% and strain aged in argon and nitrogen in the temperature range between 473 and 1123 K for 3.6 ks. Strengthening of W- and γ-phases was investigated by applying microhardness measurements. Effects of the degree of deformation, parameters of heat treatment and strain aging on microstructural changes have been studied. Mechanical properties, hardness and microhardness of phases as a function of the degree of deformation and heat treatment were analyzed by applying statistical modeling. A correlation between deformation behavior of phases, effect of heat treatment and alloy properties was also discussed.     

Superplastic behavior of a fine-grained ZK60 magnesium alloy processed by high-ratio differential speed rolling

Grain size of the ZK60 alloy was effectively reduced to 12 μm through high-ratio differential speed rolling (HRDSR) for a thickness reduction of 70% in a single pass. Due to the strengthening effects of grain boundaries and particles, the HRDSR processed ZK60 exhibited a high tensile strength of 340 MPa. Low temperature superplasticity was attained at 473–493 K at low strain rates (5 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹) and high strain rate superplasticity was attained at 523–553 K at high strain rates (10⁻² s⁻¹). The optimum superplastic temperature was found to be 553 K where a maximum tensile elongation of 1000% was obtained at 1 × 10⁻³ s⁻¹. The deformation behavior of the HRDSR processed ZK60 at elevated temperatures could be depicted by considering contribution of grain boundary sliding and slip creep to total plastic flow. Difference in superplastic deformation behavior between the HRDSR processed and equal channel angular press processed ZK60 alloys was examined and discussed.     

Microwave dielectric properties and sintering behavior of nano-scaled (α + θ)-Al2O3 ceramics

The dielectric properties at microwave frequencies and the microstructures of nano (α + θ)-Al₂O₃ ceramics were investigated. Using the high-purity nano (α + θ)-Al₂O₃ powders can effectively increase the value of the quality factor and lower the sintering temperature of the ceramic samples. Grain growth can be limited with θ-phase Al₂O₃ addition and high-density alumina ceramics can be obtained with smaller grain size comparing to pure α-Al₂O₃. Relative density of sintered samples can be as high as 99.49% at 1400 °C for 8 h. The unloaded quality factors Q × f are strongly dependent on the sintering time. Further improvement of the Q × f value can be achieved by extending the sintering time to 8 h. A dielectric constant (_r) of 10, a high Q × f value of 634,000 GHz (measured at 14 GHz) and a temperature coefficient of resonant frequency (τ_f) of −39.88 ppm/°C were obtained for specimen sintered at 1400 °C for 8 h. Sintered ceramic samples were also characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).