Effects of cigarette smoking and smoking deprivation on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) performance was assessed in 24 heavy smokers and 12 nonsmokers recruited from universities in the US and Japan. Half of the smokers performed the WCST after abstaining from tobacco for 12 hrs, whereas the remaining smokers smoked a cigarette of their preferred brand immediately before the test. Nonsmokers did not smoke. The WCST was administered by computer, first with standard instructions and then a 2nd time with abbreviated instructions that specified the 3 sorting criteria. Results from the 2nd run indicated that abstinent smokers made significantly more perseverative responses and errors than did nonsmokers or smoking smokers. Results expand on previous findings of effects of smoking deprivation on human cognitive performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of abstinence on cigarette smoking among outpatients with schizophrenia.

The authors of this study examined the effects of brief smoking abstinence on smoking among 6 individuals with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Before 6 of 12 experimental sessions, participants were required to provide breath carbon monoxide (CO) samples indicative of smoking abstinence; before the remaining sessions, participants provided CO samples indicating no abstinence. During sessions, participants obtained smoking opportunities (2 puffs/opportunity) under either fixed ratio-1 or progressive ratio (PR) schedules of reinforcement. Abstinence increased smoking under both schedules and increased breakpoint for smoking under the PR schedule. These data offer further evidence that smoking by individuals with schizophrenia is orderly, operant behavior that is modulated, at least in part, by variables that also affect smoking in people without major mental illness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of d-amphetamine and smoking abstinence on cue-induced cigarette craving.

In this study, the authors investigated the effects of the indirect dopamine agonist d-amphetamine (AMPH) on cue-induced cigarette craving in smokers. Abstinent or nonabstinent cigarette smokers (N=21) rated their cravings for cigarettes and for food (control) after pretreatment with AMPH (15 mg) or placebo and before and after viewing blocks of smoking-related, food-related, and neutral pictures. Before the cues were presented, AMPH increased cigarette craving and decreased food craving. Smoking and food cues increased craving for cigarettes and for food, respectively. AMPH also further increased cigarette craving (and decreased food craving) after cue presentation, but it did so regardless of cue type (food or smoking). Smoking abstinence markedly increased craving regardless of cue presentation or drug condition. These results suggest that both AMPH and smoking abstinence can increase cigarette craving, but they do not appear to specifically affect responses to conditioned smoking-related cues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cigarette smoking on antioxidant vitamin and activities of antioxidases

Levels of plasma vitamin C and E (P-VC, P-VE), beta-carotene (P-beta-Car), lipoperoxides (P-LPO), and activity of erythrocyte superoxide dismutase (E-SOD) were measured in 871 healthy smokers and 348 healthy non-smokers to study the relationship between cigarette smoking and antioxidant vitamins and oxygen free radicals. Results showed that levels of P-VC, P-VE, P-beta-Car and E-SOD reduced significantly, and level of P-LPO increased significantly in smokers, as compared with those in non-smokers. Levels of P-VC, P-VE, P-beta-Car and E-SOD reduced and level of P-LPO increased in 65 male smokers at the same age, with the increase of duration of smoking and quantity of cigarettes smoked, showing a linear correlationship. It suggested that there existed serious imbalance between oxidation and antioxidation in the bodies of smokers, and oxygen free radical reaction and reaction of lipoperoxidation obviously intensified.     

The effects of cigarette smoking on negative priming.

Nicotine administration has been found to enhance performance on tasks of selective attention. It has been proposed that efficient attentional filtering depends on the successful inhibition of distracting information. In the work reported here, a negative priming paradigm was adopted to test whether smoking enhanced the inhibition of irrelevant information. Thirty-six minimally deprived smokers, half of whom smoked and half of whom sham smoked, completed the negative priming task. A significantly larger negative priming effect was found in participants who had smoked in comparison with those who sham smoked. These results support the hypothesis that nicotine enhances the inhibition of distracting information and thus suggest a possible mechanism by which smoking may enhance selective attention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of nicotine on thermal pain detection in humans.

Pain detection threshold (latency in seconds) was repeatedly assessed by a standardized, computer-controlled radiant heat stimulus applied to the skin before and after nicotine intake in 3 studies of smokers and nonsmokers. Placebo or doses of nicotine corrected for body weight were administered by measured-dose nasal spray. Nicotine increased pain latency (i.e., decreased pain sensitivity) significantly in each study, although effects were modest and somewhat inconsistent. Nicotine had no effect on skin temperature at the site of stimulation, arguing against an indirect effect on nociception through peripheral cardiovascular changes. Overall, there were no significant differences as a result of smoking status, indicating that nicotine's influence on pain sensitivity is a "true" drug effect and is not due to withdrawal relief. Findings suggest that nicotine produces an antinociceptive effect in humans, but its relationship to nicotine reinforcement is unclear. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An ecological view of cigarette smoking.

Considers the social, biological, and physical inputs, mediating systems, and behavioral outputs of smoking in an ecological model. Implications of this model in understanding changes in smoking patterns are discussed. Experimental data is presented in an analysis of some determinants of the decision to stop smoking. Findings indicate that the individual stops smoking, not out of fear of consequences (e.g., lung cancer), but because of expectations of benefits: the decision to stop is based on subjectively expected utility. Attempts to change utilities have been inconclusive but do tend to indicate the importance of smoking patterns and that, for many individuals, smoking is an important source of ego strength. It is suggested that within Western society cigarettes are a major source for the fulfillment of the dominant values of achieving and doing. The need to change the society's as well as the individual's view of the utility of smoking is discussed. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of biochemical validation of self-reported cigarette smoking on treatment success and on misreporting abstinence.

Investigated the measurement of alveolar carbon monoxide (CO) levels to validate self-reported smoking rates at the end of treatment. 127 volunteer smokers, mostly middle-aged, who were in behavioral smoking-cessation clinics were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions that varied in timing of exposure to information regarding CO measurement: (a) at the beginning of treatment (demonstration of CO measurement, discussion of smoking effects on CO levels, and notification that individual CO levels would be measured at the conclusion of the clinic); (b) at the end of treatment (demonstration, discussion, and notification of CO measurement prior to self-reports of smoking levels); or (c) at the end of treatment (demonstration and discussion of CO measurement subsequent to self-reports of smoking levels). Only 16% of self-reports of abstinence were not verified by CO measurement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cigarette smoking and age on the maturation of human oocytes

We investigated whether cigarette smoking, measured by follicular fluid concentrations of cotinine (a major metabolite of nicotine), affects the maturity of oocytes from women undergoing in-vitro fertilization (IVF) and embryo transfer. In 234 women, follicular fluid samples were assessed for cotinine and their 2020 oocytes were assessed for maturity stage. Data on individual proportions of oocytes which were mature (OM) and were fertilized (OF) were analysed by regression in relation to age and follicular fluid cotinine. OF gave an independent assessment of oocyte maturity. Both age and follicular fluid cotinine entered the OM and OF regressions and were significant. The age-adjusted regression coefficients for log cotinine were positive; greater cotinine concentrations usually accompanied greater OM and OF. The cotinine effect on OM was positive in younger women, but it became negative (decreased OM with increasing cotinine concentrations) in older women (> or = 40 years). We further found in older women an average reduction of approximately 50% in the number of mature oocytes; this reduced number was lower than the number of embryos usually transferred. Smoking can reduce the number of mature oocytes even further, therefore risking a negative IVF-embryo transfer outcome. This may be the reason why the negative effects of smoking become clinically detectable in older women.     

Pain as a motivator of smoking: Effects of pain induction on smoking urge and behavior.

Tobacco smoking has been associated with the development and exacerbation of chronically painful conditions. Conversely, there is reason to believe that smokers may be motivated to use tobacco as a means of coping with their pain. To date, no controlled, experimental studies have tested for a causal relationship between pain and smoking motivation. The primary aim of the current study was to test the hypothesis that laboratory-induced cold pressor pain would enhance smoking motivation, as measured by self-reported urge to smoke and observation of immediate smoking behavior. Smokers (N = 132) were randomly assigned to either pain or no pain conditions. Results indicated that situational pain increased urge ratings and produced shorter latencies to smoke. The relationship between pain and increased urge to smoke was partially mediated by pain-induced negative affect. The relationship between pain and shorter latency to smoke was fully mediated by pain-induced urge to smoke. This study provides the 1st experimental evidence that situational pain can be a potent motivator of smoking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of age on A delta- and C-fibre thermal pain perception

It has been suggested that ageing may have a differential effect on C fibre-mediated protopathic/tonic pain versus epicritic/phasic pain perception mediated by A delta fibres. The present study attempted to independently assess age-related changes in the function of A delta- and C-nociceptive fibres by examining CO2 laser-induced thermal pain thresholds before, during and after a compression block of the superficial radial nerve in 15 young and 15 healthy elderly adult subjects. Nerve block efficacy was monitored via measures of cold, warm and mechanical threshold, and simple reaction time. During nerve compression block, reaction time and mechanical threshold increased, cold sensation became impaired while warm sensation remained unaffected throughout the test in both groups. With respect to pain sensitivity, young adults exhibited significant increases in thermal pain threshold during A-fibre block while pain threshold remained relatively stable across the 3 test periods in the elderly group. It would appear that elderly adults rely predominantly on C-fibre input when reporting pain whereas younger adults utilise additional input from A delta fibres. Subsequent analysis revealed that during pre- and post-block periods, older adults exhibited a significant elevation in thermal pain threshold; however, when A delta-fibre function was impaired and only C-fibre information was available, both groups responded similarly. These findings support the notion of a differential age-related change in A-fibre-mediated epicritic pain perception versus C-fibre-mediated protopathic pain.     

Effects of acute cigarette smoking on endothelium-dependent arterial dilatation in normal subjects

The effects of acute cigarette smoking on endothelial function were evaluated in the brachial artery of 10 nonsmoking healthy subjects. Endothelial dysfunction observed after cigarette smoking is a phenomenon lasting at least 60 minutes and does not appear to be attenuated with repeat exposure.     

A genetic association for cigarette smoking behavior.

Dopaminergic genes are likely candidates for heritable influences on cigarette smoking. In an accompanying article, Lerman et al. (1999) report associations between allele 9 of a dopamine transporter gene polymorphism (SLC6A3-9) and lack of smoking, late initiation of smoking, and length of quitting attempts. The present investigation extended their study by examining both smoking behavior and personality traits in a diverse population of nonsmokers, current smokers, and former smokers (N?=?1,107). A significant association between SLC6A3-9 and smoking status was confirmed and was due to an effect on cessation rather than initiation. The SLC6A3-9 polymorphism was also associated with low scores for novelty seeking, which was the most significant personality correlate of smoking cessation. It is hypothesized that individuals carrying the SLC6A3-9 polymorphism have altered dopamine transmission, which reduces their need for novelty and reward by external stimuli, including cigarettes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cigarette smoking on solid and liquid intragastric distribution and gastric emptying

BACKGROUND: The acute effects of cigarette smoking on gastric emptying are controversial, whereas its effects on the intragastric distribution of solids and liquids are not established. METHODS: Dual isotope gastric scintigraphy was performed in 15 habitual smokers (studied twice, either sham smoking or actively smoking) and in 15 age- and sex-matched nonsmokers. RESULTS: Acute smoking was associated with an increased prevalence of episodes of retrograde intragastric movement of solids (3 of 15 sham subjects vs. 12 of 15 actively smoking subjects; P < 0.01) and of liquids (0 of 15 vs. 7 of 15; P < 0.01) from distal to proximal stomach. Fundal half-emptying time (T1/2) for liquids was also prolonged by smoking (43 +/- 19 minutes sham vs. 125 +/- 216 minutes active; P < 0.05). Acute smoking delayed solid lag time (13 +/- 6 minutes sham vs. 32 +/- 18 active; P < 0.05) and liquid T1/2 (46 +/- 21 vs. 90 +/- 50 minutes; P < 0.05). In the nonsmokers, such episodes of proximal intragastric redistribution did not occur, and intragastric and overall emptying parameters did not differ significantly from those of habitual sham smokers. CONCLUSIONS: Acute cigarette smoking produces excessive antrofundal redistribution of both solid and liquid contents and delays solid and liquid gastric emptying.     

Psychological and pharmacological influences in cigarette smoking withdrawal: Effects of nicotine gum and expectancy on smoking withdrawal symptoms and relapse.

To determine the relative effects of expectancy and nicotine depletion on aversive withdrawal symptoms, we gave 109 smokers attempting to quit either nicotine gum or placebo within a balanced placebo design and monitored their withdrawal symptoms and smoking for 2 weeks. Subjects who believed they were getting nicotine gum reported less physical symptoms of withdrawal, showed less arousal, and smoked fewer cigarettes during the first week of quitting when compared with those who thought they were receiving placebo gum. The actual nicotine content of gum had no effect on withdrawal or relapse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Commitment and the prevention of adolescent cigarette smoking.

Tested the effects of commitment (CM) to nonsmoking on resistance to arguments favoring cigarette smoking. In Exp I, 37 7th graders were assigned to a public CM condition, in which they were audiotaped as they explained why they would not become smokers, or to information control or no-treatment conditions. In Exp II, 51 7th graders participated in conditions of (1) high CM, in which they were given high choice to write and publicly audiotape a speech about why smoking is bad; (2) low CM, in which they were given low choice to write an anonymous essay about why smoking is bad; or to (3) a no-treatment condition. Ss then listened to arguments favoring smoking. CM failed to enhance resistance to persuasion in either experiment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The natural history of cigarette smoking: Predicting young-adult smoking outcomes from adolescent smoking patterns.

Assessed the magnitude of risk that adolescent cigarette smoking carries for adult smoking, using longitudinal data from 4,156 Ss surveyed originally during Grades 6–12 and followed up after completion of high school. Even infrequent experimentation (i.e., smoking only a few cigarettes) in adolescence significantly raised the risk for adult smoking by a factor of 16 compared to nonsmoking adolescents. Relative risk was also increased by early onset of smoking and by a stable, uninterrupted course from experimentation to regular smoking. Data support the importance of primary prevention programs directed at adolescent populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classical conditioning of environmental cues to cigarette smoking.

Smoking-related cues tend to produce urges and cardiac responses in smokers. This reactivity has been assumed to reflect prior classical conditioning. However, little direct evidence exists supporting the notion that environmental cues can be classically conditioned to cigarette smoking. In this study, 8 smokers received 22 daily trials during which 2 cue complexes (comprising visual, olfactory, and auditory stimuli) were paired with smoking (CS+ trials) and not smoking (CS– trials). Reactivity to the environmental cues, as measured by self-report of urge and pulse rate, increased across CS+ trials, diverging from responses in the CS– trials. Reactivity was stronger among light smokers and those who verbalized awareness of smoking contingencies. Findings indicate that environmental cues can be classically conditioned to smoking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)