Executive Summary—Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option

An estimated 1,800 million people need improved water supplies in the fifteen years to the end of the century, if developing countries are to reach the target of full coverage. The first half of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990) has seen increases in the percentages of the rural population with access to safe water supplies, but only in Asia has the pace been quick enough to envisage a target of essentiahy full coverage by the end of the century (ten years later than the original Decade goals). In Africa, present progress rates would leave half of the rural population still without safe water in the year 2000, while in Latin America, it may be ten years into the next century before full coverage is achieved unless progress improves dramatically.

Accelerated progress is hampered by financial and technical resource constraints faced by many developing countries, and the problem is aggravated by the growing number of completed projects which are broken down and abandoned, or functioning much below capacity. Attempts to increase the pace of providing improved community water supplies have often been frustrated because the technology used has proved impossible to sustain in village conditions.

To make a lasting impact on the urgent needs, community water supply (CWS) strategies must be based on sustainable and replicable programs, and must take account of the pace at which resource constraints can be overcome. Human resource development programs take time to produce results, and institutional changes can only be accomplished gradually.     

Intermittent Water Supply under Water Scarcity Situations

Abstract

This paper describes the recently developed ‘Guidelines for the design and control of intermittent water distribution systems’. These guidelines outline a new approach to the design of urban water distribution systems for developing countries in order to maintain adequate and equitable supplies under the common conditions of water resource shortage. The guidelines are novel in that they recognise the reality of intermittent supply and hence provide new methods of analysis and design, appropriate for such systems. Design objectives specifically tailored to intermittent systems are developed and drive the design process. These objectives are expressed in terms of equity in supply, adequate pressure at water connections and duration or time of supply that are convenient to the consumers. The modifications required to model such systems have been incorporated into a new network analysis simulation tool coupled with an optimal design tool.     

Small-Scale Gravity Flow Water Systems in Phrae Province,Thailand

ABSTRACT

Small gravity flow water systems using small diameter PVC pipe are an increasingly popular technology in the mountains of Phrae Province, Thailand. The systems are appropriate to the needs and capabilities of the rural Thai village users; rural Thai villagers have been able to independently design, finance, and construct systems serving from 10–30 houses.

Technical details about the construction, maintenance, and finance of two systems in Ban Nam Jom Village are described. The systems include sedimentation and sand filtration tanks, and also galvanized iron reservoirs. One system, serving 22 houses, was constructed at a cost of US $904.72.

Low cost gravity flow water systems are a new technology for accessible mountain areas in countries where cheap PVCpipe is available.     

Development of Information Focal Points (IFPs) on Community Water Supply in Rural Areas

Abstract

At the end of 1998 a training workshop was organized by the IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre in The Hague, The Netherlands, with the aim of establishing Information Focal Points (IFPs) within a number of organizations. The partner organizations were NETWAS International in Nairobi, Kenya, WASEP in Gilgit, Northern Areas of Pakistan, CINARA in Cali, Colombia, and the Mvula Trust in Johannesburg, South Africa. The IFP initiative was a sub-project of a much larger project, called the Manage Dissemination Project that aimed to disseminate the results of an earlier four-year participatory action research project undertaken by IRC on community management of rural water supplies. Unlike many other water information initiatives, which often have the catchment as their point of departure, IFPs had the ambitious goal of wanting to access and document water information at a much lower level, namely that of the community. Inherent to this approach was that community-based water information would become institutionalized in the partner organizations, so that even after the research project came to an end, the IFPs would be able to continue their work. This article describes the objectives and outcomes of the above workshop and provides thumbnail sketches of the partner organizations involved in the sub-project. It also discusses the plans that partner organizations developed for implementing IFPs within their own organizations. The challenges that may confront both the partner organizations themselves, and IRC in its role as a supportive institution, are also discussed. The article ends by trying to look ahead on how the IFP initiative may evolve in the future.     

Water and Sustainable Development in Ghana

Abstract

Water is vital for the survival and development of every community or society. The health of a given community is reflected to a large extent in the water quality of the community's available water resources. In Ghana, efforts have been made since colonial days to supply both the urban and the rural communities with potable water to enhance the rapid socio-economic development of the country. It is economically viable due to the remoteness of most of the rural communities to supply them with potable water from local sources such as groundwater. The urban water supply systems are mainly based on surface water sources. With the ever-expanding population, there is a need to improve freshwater resources conservation and management in order to avoid impending shortages. To ensure the total coverage of all rural and urban communities by the year 2020, a huge capital outlay of $1 billion and 51.5 billion, respectively, is needed. Most of these funds are expected to come from the private sector, both local and foreign, with the Government making some substantial contribution.     

THE INTERBASIN TRANSFER OF WATER: AN ISSUE OF EFFICIENCY AND EQUITY

ABSTRACT

Interbasin water transfers provide the option of redirecting water supplies to areas of high demand. Yet, water transfers may involve environmental damage or the loss of economic opportunity within the donor basin. It is essential, therefore, that a means for assessing potential impacts associated with proposed transfers and for accommodating damages be instituted to assure that water resources are being put to their highest and best use.

The following paper reviews recent experience in the United States with regard to interbasin transfers. It then presents a conceptual framework for assessing potential benefits and costs associated with water transfers and offers an approach for resolving conflicts that may allow for mutual benefit on the part of the affected parties.     

WELL-BEING & INTEGRITY

ABSTRACT

There is evidence that the driving force behind IWRA's congresses on water resources keeps the integrity of our water resources. This effect could be tested at IWRA's VIth World Congress by support for a plea to keep it.

This evidence led to the main deduction that water resources, being the universal carrier of life in the exchange processes in nature, have to be managed with integrity to keep their integrity.

Specific deductions were made about the exchange process of consumption of natural resources and the return of the resulting refuse to nature. This process appears to determine man's impact on his natural resources. It seems to be managed in Institutions and Cultures as well as in the domain of Technology. It could be reintegrated in man's economic, social and ethical behaviour, to be managed for optimum well-being.

It was also deduced that the required state of water resources could be kept by local managers with sound national and international programmes integrated in water resources management information systems.     

Women,Water, And Sanitation: Household Behavioral Patterns In Two Egyptian Villages

Abstract

Understanding the behavior patterns of women in rural households regarding water and sanitation may be the key to solving the problem of why improvements in facilities may not be accompanied by a reduction in disease prevalence. An interdisciplinary team surveyed 312 households in two Egyp tian delta villages, examining46 of them in depth, with participant observation. Their patterns of storing water, and its use for drinking, cooking, washing, animal rearing and waste disposal are rooted in the woman's beliefs regarding cleanliness and what enhances the health and well-being of herfamily The local environment of surface and groundwater availability, quality andavailable drainage affect her choices. Otherfactors include local government institutions, available technology, information and educational facilities. time and energy expended on various practices, and social values held by the women and the community The women suggest practical solutions for their water and sanitation problems such as carts for collecting waste water, but feel powerless to influence local governments, or even their husbands, to institute new practices. Such targeted studies can disclose linkages among significant factors in the household environment, and should be undertaken for any project designed to provide effective and lasting water and sanitation in rural villages.     

Economic Aspects of Soil Conservation Programs in Less-Developed Countries (LDCs)

ABSTRACT

This article evaluates the prospects for rainfall-runoff water harvesting as a means of increasing water supplies in Greater Amman and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Rain/all-runoff water harvesting is a small-scale water conservation approach for catching/storing rainfalls and certain runoff waters in a localized area. before the waters enter the usual hydrologic cycle. Generally the methods are small basic impounding concepts as compared with larger-scale river dams and reservoirs. Catchment of rainfall drainage from a building roof with tank storage is the commonest practice. This is an age-old practice used to sustain populations, mostly in arid areas of the world, but also in areas where water distribution systems are unavailable. In the following text, water harvesting yields are calculated for residential roofs and for the potential from commercial and industrial areas. as of 1990 and projected to 2005. The results show that rainfall-runoff water harvesting is an increasingly attractive consideration in arid areas facing acute water supply shortages, for both villages and urban centers.     

Water Supply and Groundwater Issues in Developing Countries

Abstract

The growing populations of most developing countries occur disproportionally in urban areas. This places considerable pressure on already overburdened budgets to increase the water supply and wastewater infrastructure. Moreover, little or no resources are left to supply, let alone, improve rural water supplies. To add to the problems, money has been spent on studies that have never been implemented. Projects have been constructed that have not fulfilled their purpose. This paper examines some of these problems, emphasizing groundwater, and suggests ways to prevent them in the future     

Thai Rural Domestic Water Consumption: A Case Study of a Village Community With No Organized Water Supply System

ABSTRACT

Thai rural domestic water consumption of 282 households for 59 villages in Amphoe Nong Sua, Pathum Thani Province, Thailand, is examined in this study. The paper describes the pattern of rural domestic water use and evaluates the factors which affect per capita rural water consumption. Stepwise regression analysis was applied to assess the variables which were postulated to be associated with per capita rural water consumption. The variables that were found to be significantly associated with per capita rural water consumption were household size, average household age, level of education, average household income and number of baths per day.     

Water Shortages in the Hunter Region of New South Wales

ABSTRACT

The Hunter region of New South Wales is one of the most rapidly developing mining and industrial areas in Australia. Popular belief exists that the great benefits portended by the new cycle of development will be stifled by water shortages. However, the essence of this study is that emerging water shortages are a function of institutional circumstances—circumstances which provide a privileged position to one class of water users, irrigators, to the detriment of others. If no additional water were to be provided to irrigation, it is seen that water shortages do not emerge until well into the next decade. Further, it is seen that current augmentation policies, rather than accommodating water shortages, tend to perpetuate them a t great social cost. Several institutional alternatives are considered to facilitate the more beneficial use of existing supplies.     

Assessing sustainability of rural gravity-fed water schemes on Idjwi Island,D.R. Congo

ABSTRACT

To assess the sustainability of rural gravity-fed water schemes on Idjwi Island, the association between four hypothesized drivers of sustainability – perceived sense of ownership, willingness to pay for maintenance, trust in the water committee, and household involvement in the project – and service reliability, the main outcome variable, was analyzed. Primary data were gathered through in-person surveys of 1253 user households. The results provide two significant insights. First, during the 5–10 years after implementation, in the presence of an external intervention, a lower perceived sense of ownership for the water system was associated with higher service reliability. This stands in contrast with much of the existing literature, which outlines a consistent positive association between sense of ownership and sustainability of rural water systems. Second, despite 77% of beneficiaries stating that they were willing to pay for maintenance service, such contributions were not forthcoming, due to lack of trust in the water committee. In this scenario, almost 42% of the water points are reported as non-functional, 5–10 years after completion.     

Selection of Urban Water Supply Systems For Upgrading

ABSTRACT

The Provincial Waterworks Authority of Thailand (PWA) is considering upgrading a number of their water supply schemes to improve the conditions of existing facilities and to maximize the system efficiency with minimum capital expenditures in order to postpone major investments.

The scope of the study was to review all water supply systems managed by PWA to ascertain the need for immediate action, the technical suitability and the cost effectiveness of upgrading and to set priorities among the systems proposed.

After preliminary screening, 39 systems were selected and ranked in accordance with established selection criteria. Specific recommendations were also given for future actions on the selected systems.     

Source Choice Perception and Sustainable Rural Water Supply Development: A Case Study of Ban Thadindam,Lopburi, Thailand

Abstract

This study seeks to examine source choice perception and sustainable rural water supply development in Ban Thadindam, a Thai village situated about 220 km north of Bangkok. It makes use of an elementary schematic matrix that was initially developed for the valuation of water sources as perceived by water users in East Africa. In applying the elementary choice scheme, the author interviewed the village Kamnan (district officer) and a few villagers. The results of this study show that a wide range of water supply sources was perceived by the Kamnan. Out of a practical range of six sources, four were perceived and accepted, roof (rain water), river, spring, and pond; and two were perceived but not accepted: well and canal. The reason why well and canal water sources were rejected was because of their hardness and turbidity. Of the four sources accepted, roof (rain water) was rated very favorably as the preferred choice while river, spring, and pond sources were judged equally favorable. Awareness of source choice and the conditions under which choice is made is crucial for the understanding and development of sustainable rural water supply. By adopting a wide combination of sources and integrating them to provide a rich water supply for treatment, and by taking advantage of filtration technology given by the Asian Institute of Technology, Environmental Engineering Division, the villagers, with the help of the Project Managing Committee, transformed the demonstration filtration facility into a sustainable rural water supply system. The latter succeeded not only in providing adequate filtered water for the majority of the households in Ban Thadindam but also in satisfying the water requirements for the whole village for two decades. The success of the rural water supply system has been attributable to many factors, but most important was the awareness the villagers have in the understanding of the interrelations between landscape, range of choice and the interaction between community participation, technology, and environment.     

Man-made Rivers: A New Approach to Water Resources Development in Dry Areas

ABSTRACT

Poor surface and groundwater resources distribution on the national, regional, and global levels has created severe water shortages in several parts of the world. The construction of Man-made Rivers (MMRs) to achieve a more desirable distribution of available water supplies is both technically feasible and economically rational. The Libyan experience with its Great MMR Project is briefly described and its results are introduced as an example to support the above conclusions. Similar future projects may be constructed to serve other water scarcity zones such as the countries of the Middle East, North Africa. and the Southwestern U.S.A.     

A Comparative Analysis of the Influence of Socioeconomic Variables on the Financial Performance of Smallholder Irrigation Systems in Zimbabwe

Abstract

This paper evaluates the influence of socioeconomic variables on participating in marketing cooperatives on the financial performance of small holder irrigation systems in Zimbabwe: use of credit, participation in labor groups, master farmer training, literacy, keeping of farm records, participation in savings clubs, and the gender of the plot holder. Three smallholder irrigation management systems namely the government managed Agritex, the farmer managed community, and the informal bani (dambo) are compared. In the Agritex schemes, participating in labor groups is the only variable influencing financial performance. None of the variables studied are important on the community schemes, perhaps because unlike on Agritex schemes, where the government makes production decisions, community scheme farmers make their own decisions. In the bani schemes, marketing cooperatives, credit use, literacy, record keeping, and the gender of the plot holder are significant. The government should consider extending credit, developing sustainable production recommendations, and developing training programs directly applicable to the bani environment. The bani system achieves the most equitable income distribution and is more efficient than both the community and Agritex systems. The government policy of ignoring this system in development efforts directly contradicts the concepts of equity and efficiency.     

The Perception of Water Quality Among Rural Communities in South-Western Nigeria: Lesson for Planners

ABSTRACT

“Clean water for all” is one of the goals of the UN International Drinking Supply and Sanitation Decade 1981–90. This goal to be accomplished, requires a level of governmental investment which is difficult to reach in many developing countries. This is particularly so of Nigeria where a vast majority of rural people is yet to benefit from improved water supply and where the level of priority accorded domestic water supply is dismally low, with some states devoting just about 1% of their total capital expenditure to water supply provision.

At the same time, there is evidence that the rural people in many places, aware of the advantages of good water sources and the disadvantages of bad ones, show preferences for and undertake development programmes connected with good quality water supply: this is here exemplified by three rural communities in southwestern Nigeria. Not only are these people knowledgeable about water quality and its relationship with health, they are also eager to seize any feasible opportunities to improve their water supply situation.

It is argued that rather than rely on gigantic time-consuming, capital intensive and difficult to maintain schemes, as we have presently with government projects, more modest ones within the competence of the rural communities should be encouraged.