A Canadian Approach To Drought Monitoring For Famine Relief in Africa

ABSTRACT

Poor water supply is the dominant issue in African agriculture. A project aimed at reducing the impact of drought onfood supply levels in Africa is described. The result was a computer software package for analysis of monthly rainfall records which can be operated on a desktop computer. Referencing of current weather analysis results against historical expectations was a major part of the system design. Another feature was to combine current records with climate normals to project mid-rainy season growing conditions to post-harvest crop estimates. A simple simulation model is used to relate rainfall records to evapotranspirationpotential to generate crop water use and soil moisture reserve estimates. Initial scale of application was the entire African continent, but a downsized version has been produced for Zambia. Similar versions could be produced for other countries. The overall project proposed a multi-disciplinary approach to monitoring, in which the weather based system described here is only one component. Satellite technology is a key link to this system. Other applications of the system include both training and long-term planning as well as crop marketing support.     

An Empirical Assessment of On-Farm Water Productivity using Groundwater in a Semi-Arid Indian Watershed

Realistic estimation of irrigation volume applied to any crop at farm level generally requires information on event based discharge rates and corresponding periods of irrigation application. Use of mean seasonal discharge rates leads to erroneous estimation of volume due to unaccounted seasonal fluctuations in the water table, upon which the discharge rate of tube well is dependent. In the absence of such information, an alternative approach of estimating farm level water application based upon water table fluctuation data has been adopted in this study. The total actual water extracted during each irrigation event from the watershed was distributed among the farms irrigating crops in proportion to the product of irrigation time and the pump capacity (h_p). Volume of water withdrawal concurrent to an irrigation event was computed based on the water level fluctuations in the wells in conjunction with potential recharge contribution from the surface storage structures to the groundwater aquifer. A production function approach was used to estimate the marginal productivity of water for selected crops at various stages of plant growth. Water, as an input in the production function, encompassed either in-situ soil moisture storage from rainfall or irrigation from groundwater or both. The inter-season as well as intra-season groundwater use, and the consequent groundwater withdrawals were analyzed based on the marginal value and output elasticity of water at different crop growth stages during the season. The cotton crop realized marginal value product of water, ranging from Rs. 1.03/m³ to Rs. 10.43/m³ at different crop growth stages in cotton. Castor crop had the marginal value product ranging from Rs. 2.89/m³ to Rs. 6.81/m³. The availability and use of water, including soil moisture, in the two seasons, coupled with the local harvest prices received, yielded the differential marginal values of water.     

Evaluation of a small basin water-harvesting system in the arid region of Jordan

The performance of a small runoff-basin water-harvesting system (negarim) was evaluated under a typical Mediterranean arid environment in Jordan. Rainfall, runoff, catchment area, soil water storage, and crop evapotranspiration were analyzed as elements of one system. Three micro-catchment areas (25, 50, and 75 m²) and three surface treatment methods (natural, plastic cover, and compaction) were used. Runoff efficiency was evaluated for 16 storms. Storage efficiency was evaluated for eight periods by monitoring soil water balance in the crop root zone. The overall efficiency of the water-harvesting system was determined as the ratio of the amount of water stored and used by the crop to the amount of rainfall received in the catchment area. The overall efficiency of the system varied from over 85% to as low as 7% depending on the size of the catchment and the root zone capacity. Gains in runoff improvement were lost when the soil moisture in the cultivated area was near field capacity. The required ratio of the catchment area to the cultivated area was found to be strongly related to the root zone storage capacity and the rate of consumptive use as well as rainfall-runoff characteristics.     

砾石土质条件下葡萄滴灌生育期土壤含水率变化规律研究

为探究酿酒葡萄在砾石土质条件下的土壤含水率变化规律及合理灌溉制度,选取贺兰山东麓砾石土典型试验区,以五年生赤霞珠品种为研究对象,设计2 550、2 850、3 225、3 600 m3/hm24个不同定额的灌水处理,应用TDR土壤水分剖面仪和土壤水势仪,监测生育期滴灌前后不同土层含水率与水势变化,针对监测数据从灌水处理整体与单个生育期不同角度进行分析,研究酿酒葡萄在砾石土条件下不同滴灌定额土壤含水率变化规律,最终提出生育期适宜灌溉制度。研究结果表明:随着灌溉定额的增加,土壤含水率在0~40cm土层范围内变化较明显;不同深度土层土壤水势变化规律与灌溉定额的大小有关;1m深土壤水分蓄存比并不是随着灌水量的增加而增大,而是当灌水量达到某一定额时,随着灌水量的增加,土壤水分蓄存比减小,砾石土单次灌水量高于300 m3/hm2时,土壤水分蓄存比较低,易产生深层渗漏。     

作物需水量计算研究进展

评述了作物需水量的计算,并着重分析了基于参考作物蒸发蒸腾量计算作物需水量的方法.提出了作物系数、土壤水分修正系数需要进一步研究的观点,并指出作物系数不但随作物生长发育时间而变化,也受气温和土壤水分状况累积效应的影响,土壤水分修正系数也有建立包含作物根系深度等因素的计算模型的必要.     

黄土高原北部淤地坝区域土壤水分模拟及水分有效性——以六道沟流域为例

为揭示黄土高原北部淤地坝区域土壤水分变化特征及其有效性,以黄土高原北部六道沟流域的一处淤地坝区域为研究区,基于实测的水文、气象数据,利用Penman公式和Penman-Monteith公式分别推求参考作物的蒸散发以及草地蒸散发,并对水分有效性进行评估;基于非饱和土壤水分运动方程式(Richards formula)构建了一维土壤水分计算模型,并对土壤水分进行模拟。结果表明:计算时段内,研究区的水分有效性参数值受同期表层土壤含水量和蒸散发的影响较大;淤地坝区域的水分有效性参数均值(0.31)比坡面均值(0.17)大;构建的一维土壤水分模型模拟精度较高,实测值与模拟值之间的相关系数以及模型的纳什效率(Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency(NSE))系数在0.90以上。研究结果可为黄土高原北部淤地坝区域蒸散发和土壤水分运动的深入研究提供基础数据和方法上的借鉴。     

土壤墒情自动化监控系统研究

土壤墒情自动化系统可为节水灌溉及排涝抗旱工作提供强有力的技术支持,将产生较大的社会与经济效益.对在作物生长过程中起关键作用的土壤湿度、降雨量、地下水水位等因子进行采集,并对作物的实时生长情况进行视频监控.在此基础上,通过构建计算机信息平台,对监测采集的数据进行存储计算.根据收集的土壤含水量数据信息,建立灌溉智能决策系统,通过开发基于B/S结构的系统网站访问模式,实现土壤墒情自动化监控.     

淮北平原基于水文气象多因子的土壤水分动态预测

为研究土壤水分动态变化,利用五道沟水文实验站1989-2015年水文气象和大田土壤水实测资料,采用灰色关联度和线性回归分析,建立了冬小麦各生长阶段不同土层土壤水分预测模型。结果表明:不同土层土壤水分与气象因子的关联度一致;不同生长阶段土壤水分与气温和地下水埋深关联度最强,分别达0. 92和0. 95;分蘖-越冬期,土壤水分与地下水埋深和日照时数关联度最强,其他生长阶段,土壤水分与气温和地下水埋深关联度最强。通过水文气象因子模拟土壤水分拟合度较高,R~2达0. 94。不同生长阶段不同土层,土壤水分计算模型均具有良好的预测能力,R~2达0. 80。成果为实施作物不同生长阶段的灌溉计划提供科学依据。     

作物需水量与灌溉制度模拟

从作物需水量的基本概念出发，以水量平衡原理为基础，建立了模拟农田根层土壤水循环的计算机模型-ISAREG.这一模型具有多种功能，可模拟根层土壤水分变化，评价给定的灌溉制度，计算作物需水量和灌溉需水量，也可用以制订多种供水限制条件下的优化灌溉制度．用望都灌溉试验站的小麦、玉米、棉花3种作物两年的试验观测资料对上述模型进行了验证．     

洞庭湖典型洲滩湿地水分时空变化特征及其相关性分析

为了分析变化条件下洲滩内部土壤水分时空变化特征及不同深度土壤水分含量和湖水位的相关性,以洞庭湖典型洲滩断面为研究对象,利用原位监测装置连续2个月监测了湖水位、大气温度及土壤水分含量的动态变化过程。结果表明:洞庭湖洲滩水分场的分布在垂向上呈现明显的分层现象,同一位置的土壤水分含量的波动幅度随着深度的增加而逐渐减小,至深层处(大于50 cm)趋于稳定,同一深度的土壤水分含量的波动幅度随着与岸边距离的增加而逐渐减小。土壤水分含量与湖水位之间的相关性随着深度的增加呈先增强后减弱的趋势,浅层及深层的土壤水分含量和湖水位之间均呈无显著相关性,地表以下50~70 cm深度处土壤水分含量与湖水位相关性较高。研究结果有助于了解土壤水分在洲滩生态系统地下含水层-土壤-大气界面的相互作用机制,为洲滩水文过程及生态环境保护研究提供重要方法和理论参考。     

Comparison of soil moisture at different depths for drought monitoring based on improved soil moisture anomaly percentage index

To better understand the characteristics and mechanisms of droughts at different drought stages, this study selected the Xiangjiang River Basin in China as the study area, and evaluated soil moisture (SM) at different depths for drought monitoring, through SM data simulated with the variable infiltration capacity (VIC) model. To solve the problem of unreasonable drought/wetness classifications based on the soil moisture anomaly percentage index (SMAPI), an improved soil moisture anomaly percentage index (ISMAPI) was developed by introducing the Box–Cox transformation. The drought/wetness frequency generated by ISMAPI demonstrated preferable spatial comparability in comparison with those from SMAPI. The lag time of ISMAPI relative to the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index was closely related to soil depth, and was characterized by a fast response in shallow soil layers and a relatively slow response in deep soil layers. SM in shallow soil layers provided a measure for monitoring short-term droughts, whereas SM in deep soil layers provided a better measure for long-term persistent drought events. Furthermore, the occurrence and mitigation time of drought events identified by SM in deep soil layers usually lagged behind that identified by SM in shallow soil layers. Compared with deep SM, SM in shallow soil layers responded faster to meteorological anomalies, thereby resulting in shorter periods of SM persistence in shallow soil layers than in deep soil layers. This can explain the differences of SM at different depths in drought monitoring.     

Quantifying the Poorly Known Role of Groundwater in Agriculture: the Case of Cyprus

Agriculture in the Mediterranean region is constrained by limited water resources and in many countries irrigation demand exceeds the renewable water supply. This paper presents a comprehensive approach to (a) quantify the consumptive green (soil moisture provided by precipitation) and blue (irrigation) water use for crop production, (b) distinguish the contribution of groundwater to irrigation supply and (c) estimate groundwater over-abstraction. A spatiotemporally explicit soil water balance model, based on the FAO-56 dual crop coefficient approach, which includes the computation of evaporation losses of the different irrigation systems, was applied to the 5,760-km² area of the Republic of Cyprus for the agro-meteorological years 1995–2009. The model uses national agricultural statistics, community-level data from the agricultural census and daily data from 34 meteorological stations and 70 precipitation gauges. Groundwater over-abstraction is quantified per groundwater body, based on the sustainable abstraction rates specified in the Cyprus River Basin Management Plan, as prepared for the EU Water Framework Directive. It was found that, on average, total agricultural water use was 506 Mm³/year, of which 62 % is attributed to green water use and 38 % to blue water use. Groundwater contributed, on average, 81 % (151 Mm³/year) to blue water use and exceeded the recommended abstraction rates by 45 % (47 Mm³/year). Even though the irrigated area decreased by 18 % during the 2008 drought year, relative to the wettest year (2003), total blue water use decreased by only 1 %. The limited surface water supply during the driest year resulted in a 37 % increase in groundwater use, relative to the wettest year, and exceeded the sustainable abstraction rate by 53 % (55 Mm³/year). Overall, the model provides objective and quantitative outcomes that can potentially contribute to the improvement of water resource management in Mediterranean environments, in the light of climate change and expected policy reforms.     

Probability Analysis of Crop Water Stress Index: An Application of Double Bounded Density Function (DB-CDF)

Soil moisture is an uncertain variable due to rainfall randomness. Furthermore, its density function is hybrid in nature, with spikes at maximum and minimum soil moisture (saturation and field capacity). Both of these properties are also considered for crop water stress index. The crop water stress index can be used to show the sensitivity of a crop to deficit irrigation. In this paper, a new methodology is proposed to probability analysis of water stress index using Double Bounded Density Function (DB-CDF) and moment analysis of crop water stress index. For this purpose, two equations were developed for the first and second moments of water stress index. To find out the value of the proposed moment equations, they are used as constraints in a stochastic model of crop water allocation as developed previously by Ganji and Shekarrizfard (Water Resour Manage 25:547–561, 2010). After verification of the model, the DB-CDF of soil moisture stress index was estimated using the value of proposed moments in the growing periods. The results show that in case of deficit irrigation, the probability of crop water stress occurrence is high and as a consequence, any unpredictable water shortage leads to yield reduction. The application of the proposed methodology is novel and has not been reported in the literature to date.     

作物腾发量实时预报与田间试验验证

获得实时、有效的作物腾发量数据是进行实时灌溉预报的基础和难点.本文根据公共的天气预报信息,提出了实时的估算作物腾发量的方法流程,并利用作物根区土壤水量平衡方程,用冬小麦田间灌溉试验的土壤水分数据对该模型和方法进行了检验;同时为检验实时参照腾发量估算方法的可靠性和实用性,对当地媒体发布的实际天气预报信息与实际气象观测值进行了对比.结果表明,在现有天气预报准确度条件下,该方法可以有效的实时估算作物腾发量,为田间实时灌溉管理与决策提供较为可靠的参数.     

长治市土壤墒情旱涝指标判定标准

根据水文循环要素、多年实测土壤含水量资料，对本地区的旱情状况进行系统评价，确定旱涝标准。并根据实时监测数据，结合各地的土壤质地、干土层厚度、农作物长势，对本地区旱涝状况进行实时评价，判别旱涝程度。通过电视新闻媒体向社会发布各县市区实时的土壤墒情信息，以水文科技服务支持本地农业生产建设。     

不同水源膜下滴灌对玉米性状及地温的影响

为了研究不同水源膜下滴灌对土壤地温、玉米生育指标和产量的影响,采用田间对比试验方法,定期对试验小区的地温、土壤含水率以及玉米生育指标进行观测,得出在玉米初期地表水滴灌处理的地温高于地下水滴灌,且随着生育期的推进和土层的增加,两处理的地温差异性减小;在含水率方面两种处理的差异性不明显,综合两处理的含水率和地温,两者成反比关系,但地表水对这种关系有削弱的趋势;在产量上地表水滴灌处理比地下水高4．58％,可见地表水膜下滴灌更利于作物的生长和产量的提高。     

区域土壤含水率遥感监测分析方法研究进展

土壤水分是陆地表面参数化的一个关键变量。遥感技术为大面积动态监测土壤水分提供了可能。简述了热惯量法、作物缺水指数法、植被指数距平法、微波遥感法、高光谱法五种目前为止比较成熟和广泛应用的土壤水分遥感监测方法和模型,并进行了优缺点分析。     

SIMETAW# - a Model for Agricultural Water Demand Planning

A successful water management scheme for irrigated crops requires an integrated approach, which accounts for water, soil, and crop management. SIMETAW# is a user friendly soil water balance model that assesses crop water use, irrigation requirements, and generates hypothetical irrigation schedules for a wide range of crops experiencing full or deficit irrigation. SIMETAW# calculates reference evapotranspiration (ET_o), and it computes potential crop evapotranspiration (ET_c), and the evapotranspiration of applied water (ET_aw), which is the amount of irrigation water needed to match losses from the effective soil root zone due to ET_c that are not replaced by precipitation and other sources. Using input information on crop and soil characteristics and the distribution uniformity of infiltrated irrigation applications in full or deficit conditions, the model estimates the mean depth of infiltrated water (IW) into each quarter of the field. The impact of deficit irrigation on the actual crop evapotranspiration (ET_a) is computed separately for each of the four quarters of the cropped field. SIMETAW# simulation adjusts ET_o estimates for projected future CO₂ concentration, and hence the model can assess climate change impacts on future irrigation demand allowing the user to propose adaptation strategies that potentially lead to a more sustainable water use. This paper discusses the SIMETAW# model and evaluates its performance on estimating ET_c, ET_a, and ET_aw for three case studies.     

河套灌区不同盐渍化土壤冬小麦优化灌溉制度研究

土壤水盐是影响干旱盐渍化地区农作物产量的重要因素,近年来内蒙古河套灌区开始推广种植冬小麦,在重点考虑不同土壤盐分状况,通过设计不同盐渍化土壤条件下冬小麦灌溉制度方案,分析田间对比试验数据成果,在此基础上利用ISAREG模型开展不同方案的优化决策研究。研究表明:考虑盐分胁迫和冻融因素条件下,ISAREG模型可以对河套灌区冬小麦进行灌溉制度优化;通过建立基于水盐胁迫的ISAREG灌溉制度模型,制定了不同盐渍化条件下考虑土壤冻融的冬小麦优化灌溉制度;优化得出河套灌区冬小麦全生育期灌水定额情况为:当土壤含水率低于适宜含水率的85%时进行灌水,通过ISAREG模型即可推导出不同含盐土壤的灌水定额与灌水日期;土壤含盐量较低的情况下冬小麦全生育期适宜灌水5次,优化灌水定额分别为66、54、79、83和83 mm,灌溉定额365 mm;中度含盐土壤冬小麦全生育期适宜灌水5次,优化的灌水定额分别为78、54、90、97和97 mm,灌溉定额为416 mm。