Estimating the Potential Impacts of Irrigation Water Pricing Using Multicriteria Decision Making Modelling. An Application to Northern Greece

A great challenge of the current European water policy is the implementation of volumetric water pricing in the agricultural sector, especially of Mediterranean countries, where irrigation is a necessary precondition of agricultural production and farmers’ income, but also the major consumer of water. The overall aim of the present work is to develop a methodology that will be suitable for the estimation of the potential environmental, economic and social impacts of irrigation water pricing. For this purpose, Multi-Attribute Utility Theory is implemented in order to simulate agricultural decision making at various water pricing scenarios. Water demand functions are then elicited, by means of the best crop and water allocation (farmers’ decisions) in each scenario. The European Water Framework Directive recommends that any issue concerning water resources management (including water pricing policies) should be developed at the river basin level. In this framework, a cluster analysis is performed to partition the river basin area (namely, Loudias River Basin, located in Northern Greece) into a small number of homogeneous sub-regions. The differential impact of water pricing in each region is then analyzed, and finally, an average water demand function is formulated for the whole river basin.     

An Economic Perspective on Subsurface Drainage Programmes in Developing Countries,with an Example from Egypt

Many countries invest public funds in large-scale drainage projects to alleviate problems of waterlogging and salinization, and to enhance agricultural development. The estimated returns on those investments are substantial when crop yields are expected to increase significantly with drainage service. However, if the need for drainage is caused largely by inadequate water management, then the efficient strategy for enhancing agricultural productivity will include investments both in irrigation and drainage facilities and in policies that motivate improvements in water management. The policy implications that follow from this perspective are described using an empirical example from Egypt.     

Integrated Water Resources Management in the Republic of Uzbekistan

Abstract

The Uzbek socio-economic structure is characterized by the transition from a centrally-planned to a market-orientated economy, with a shifting from agricultural production to industrial development. However, the agricultural sector continues to play a significant role in a general economy of the country. The major water sector strategy is to decrease the dependence of agricultural production on climate by introducing advanced irrigation techniques and water saving methods to achieve future sustainable socio-economic development and environmental protection. Water management policy should be flexible enough to adapt to new demands. The regulation of consumption through demand management tools, such as appropriate pricing policies, has recently received greater attention in Uzbekistan. The main thesis of this paper is that allocation of water resources cannot be separated from ecological and economic considerations. The establishment of development objectives and the identification of constraints are also discussed. In the coming years, special attention will need to be paid to the control of water pollution and land salinization, water resources conservation, and acknowledging that actions to increase water productivity are as important as finding additional sources of water.     

Irrigation development and environmental degradation in developing countries — a dynamic model of investment decisions and policy options

In the wake of increased environmental and sustainability concerns associated with agricultural development, developing countries are faced with the dilemma of choice between the short-run technological gains and the long-run environmental conservation. A dynamic investment decision model is developed to optimize the use of scarce public investment funds in the magagement of irrigation water supply, depth to water table and soil salinity. Four major classes of investments with different impacts on the hydrological balance within the Indus basin are considered: (a) expansion of the surface irrigation network, (b) public drainage projects, (c) tax and subsidy policies designed to influence the rate of private groundwater exploitation and (d) investment in improving the efficiency of the existing canal system by reducing conveyance losses. The crop area lost due to water logging and salt accumulation is treated as a damage cost of increasing the application of surface irrigation water. The resulting optimality conditions from the model are used to assess the development and operation of public drainage projects. The model results are compared for areas underlain by fresh and saline groundwater. The model is also used to analyze recent policy debate which has focused on the use of incentives such as subsidized credit, energy subsidies, and electrical grid expansion to accomplish the transfer of tubewell operation from the public to the private sector. Optimal switching conditions for such transfers are derived. The results show that a private farmer's optimal decision will diverge more from the societal optimal decision as more externalities from surface irrigation are accounted for.     

Institutional Reform Vision for the Irrigation Sector in Egypt

Challenges facing the water sector in Egypt call for the adoption of an integrated water resources management (IWRM) approach, which integrates all available resources to meet escalating water demands of the different water use sectors. This paper intends to provide a review of the irrigation water sector drivers in Egypt in terms of challenges, policies and their characteristics. The paper also introduces a proposal for a vision for institutional reform in the irrigation water sector to provide the proper enabling environment for wide application of the IWRM concept and a greater role of the private sector in the irrigation sector. Some key steps to realize the institution reform vision in the irrigation water sector are also presented.     

Energy cost of irrigation policy in Morocco: a social accounting matrix assessment

The objective of this study was to assess the consumption and the multiplier effect of the use of energy and irrigation water for rainfed and irrigated agriculture at the national level in Morocco. Using a social accounting matrix, the direct and indirect economic effects of subsidizing energy used by agriculture were identified. The results show that irrigation water policy in Morocco, which targets ‘water-saving’ techniques, has increased the use of subsidized energy and that indirect effects, through energy subsidies, exceed the direct effects of agricultural subsidies. A social accounting matrix can help decision makers make the necessary trade-offs between irrigated and rainfed agriculture.     

对农业水资源费和水费问题的思考与建议

随着国家取消农业税以及逐步取消乡统筹、村提留等收费项目，农业水资源费和农业水费问题成为当前农村的一个热点。农业水费在农业生产成本中的比例不断上升，但灌溉带来的增收效益明显。农业种粮收入低是造成农业水价改革难的关键因素。建议抓紧制定农业生产用水定额，推进节水型农业建设，继续深化农业水价改革，加大政府扶持力度，强化农田水利对农业的支持保护作用。     

Towards sustainable irrigated Mediterranean agriculture: implications for water conservation in semi-arid environments

Water scarcity is a threat to food production systems, with appropriate water management being a major part of the solution. From the adoption of the European Water Framework Directive to the latest proposals for the Common Agricultural Policy Horizon 2020, the strategic lines for establishing a balance between agriculture and water resources in the European Union have been defined, including an emphasis on water pricing. This paper discusses the situation of irrigated agriculture in semi-arid areas such as southern Spain in terms of water scarcity, highlighting the main advantages and disadvantages of water-pricing policies as a solution to more sustainable irrigation management.     

位山灌区水价改革实践与探索

山东省位山灌区农业供水经历了不收费、按亩收费和计量收费三个阶段。在水价改革中,采取“小步快跑”的方式,供水价格不断提高,达到了优化配置水资源和节约用水的效果。同时,水价改革为工程建设与管理提供了资金支持,增强了可持续发展能力,推动了灌区的良性运行。     

Can Irrigation Water Use Be Guided by Market Forces? Theory and Practice

This paper provides insight into the relevance of market forces to typical problems found in irrigated agriculture. It first considers the theoretical basis for the use of economic instruments, such as volumetric water charges and tradable water rights, then considers their usefulness in the context of five case studies of irrigated areas, in Egypt, India, Indonesia, Morocco and Ukraine. The case studies confirm that competition for scarce water and shortage of funds are widespread. To assess the suitability of economic instruments to achieve water management objectives, insight is provided into the current price paid for irrigation water, the cost of service provision and the value to irrigators. It becomes clear that there is a big gap between the price and value of irrigation water. This means that a considerable increase in the price of water is needed to balance supply and demand, which would reduce farm economic welfare substantially. This socio-political problem, plus the technical and administrative complexity of measuring water, make water pricing an unsuitable approach to balance supply and demand.     

Assuring Water for Food: The Challenge of the Coming Generation

There are many problems facing us on the road to a water-secure future. This paper addresses only one: the need for more water for food production to meet the needs of a population that will increase by some 2 billion before it stabilizes. Irrigation accounts for about two-thirds of total water withdrawals and as much as 80-90% in many developing countries. Of a total of 1500 2 10 6 ha under cultivation, 300 2 10 6 ha of irrigated land provides some 40% of total food production. Expansion in rain-fed areas would mean huge environmental costs, and therefore, a combination of increased efficiency in irrigation, better crop deployment, agricultural research in all areas and changes in dietary profiles will all be needed. As none of these solutions is quick-acting, we must start on all these fronts promptly if we are to manage our water resources wisely.     

The water footprint challenge for water resources management in Chilean arid zones

ABSTRACT

The water footprint concept is difficult to apply to water-shortage conditions because of private management and variability in the water balance. Chilean water law stipulates that water allocation depends on water rights and private organization criteria, according to the basin water supply and not necessarily crop irrigation demand, crop yield or irrigation technology. This paper explores the resultant complications.     

作物生产水足迹量化方法与评价研究

农业用水效率评价是农业水资源管理的基础。作物生产水足迹有效的统一了旱作、灌溉农业以及不同尺度的水分利用效率评价指标,为农业水资源管理提供了新的评价指标与工具。本文在现有作物生产水足迹量化方法的基础上,提出了基于区域耗水量和区域用水量的作物生产水足迹量化方法,形成了三种适用于不同评价目标和尺度的量化方法。以中国大陆为研究对象,利用不同方法对小麦水足迹进行量化,探讨了三种方法的特点和适用性。研究表明三种量化方法具有各自的适用范围和科学内涵,基于田间作物蒸发蒸腾量所得到的作物生产水足迹能够反映田间尺度水分利用效率、农业资源禀赋;基于区域耗水量的计算方法能够反映区域尺度水分利用效率、农业资源禀赋和区域耗水特性;基于区域用水量的水足迹量化方法能够反映区域尺度水分利用效率、灌溉系统运行水平与农业生产用水量。鉴于三种作物生产水足迹量化方法的差异性,在进行水足迹量化评价时,需根据具体的研究尺度和评价目标确定作物生产水足迹量化方法,使量化和评价结果更为科学合理。     

黄河流域灌溉农业节水技术模式及发展对策

针对黄河流域灌溉农业的特点，分别对渠灌区、井灌区、井渠结合灌区、机电提水灌区、集雨灌溉、城郊灌溉、抗旱灌溉等提出了各自的灌溉农业节水技术模式，并指出黄河流域灌溉农业节水发展应加强对黄河水资源的统一规划、调度和管理，必须建立稳定高效的投入保障机制，制定鼓励管理机构发展灌溉农业节水的政策。依靠科技创新促进灌溉用水方式的改革，推进农业经济结构调整和改革传统的农业生产方式。     

Analysis of Agricultural Water Allocation and Returns in the Sultanate of Oman

Water is the most important determinant of agricultural production in Oman. Remarkable public and private investments have been drawn into water resources development and into the modernization of the farming techniques in order to strengthen the contribution of agriculture to the national economy. In spite of these technological improvements and significant investments, water allocation remains a major policy issue. This paper discusses current water use and explores alternatives for improved allocation of agricultural water. Available data suggest that physical and economic returns to water are low. Improvement of returns to water resources could come from producing higher quality and higher value crops for domestic and foreign markets using improved irrigation techniques. This trend needs to be enforced by stringent water conservation measures in order to reach a long-term sustainable water use.     

Domestic Use of Irrigation Water: Health Hazard or Opportunity?

In an environment of growing scarcity and competition for water, there is increasing pressure on the irrigation sector to make irrigation for crop production more efficient and to transfer water to the urban, industrial and environmental sectors. However, irrigation water is extensively used for non-agricultural purposes, including domestic purposes, and an exclusive focus on water efficiency in agriculture could actually reduce the availability of domestic water within irrigated areas. It is argued, based on available literature, that this would have important health implications because in many developing countries the availability of water, rather than the quality of water, is of crucial importance to health. Two case studies are presented from Sri Lanka and Pakistan where people make use of irrigation water for a range of domestic activities. Water resource policies have to take these uses into account to avoid negative health implications for poor disadvantaged segments of the population. Barriers to optimizing benefits of linking the irrigation water supply to domestic needs seem to be institutional and psychological rather than medical, technical or economic.     

灌区两部制水价政策的经济分析

在对两部制水价政策效应的理论分析基础上，运用湖北漳河灌区农业水价改革调查资料，分析了灌区水价改革的实践效果及其成因。研究表明，两部制水价政策强化了农田灌溉中的水量限制，而忽视了在既定制度约束下农民对水利工程供水的理性需求和灌溉系统的有效供水能力的现实约束。在农业用水交易充满不确定性和水权制度尚未形成的现实条件下，水市场交易的不确定性、水市场信息的不对称性和农田水利投资的滞后性，导致农业两部制水价改革难以达到节约用水和改善水资源分配效应的预期目标。因此，提出灌区两部制水价改革成功的关键在于以交易合约化为核心的农业水市场建设。     

农村税费改革对灌溉工程建设和农业水费计收的影响与对策

通过分析农村税费改革对县乡财政收入和农田灌溉工程投入的影响以及由此对农业水费计费带来的困难,提出了加快对末级渠道进行改造、发放农业用水专项补贴、推行水费计收公示制度、加大对农业灌区工作配套建设的投入力度以及建立供水协会、推行农业供水产权改制的建设和对策.     

Irrigation water pricing in water user associations,Turkey

Countries' social and economic policies as well as their priorities and preferences determine irrigation water pricing; it is a very complex, multi-dimensional and unknown problem in all countries. There is no guiding principle; therefore many different factors affect water pricing in agriculture. The water fee is the main revenue of Water User Associations (WUAs) in Turkey. Irrigation water fees have been determined by WUAs, taking into consideration crop area for gravity irrigation and volume for pump irrigation. Legal changes should be made in order to achieve sustainable WUAs immediately. Irrigation water pricing should be required to balance multiple objectives, such as economic efficiency, equity, water saving, management effectiveness and financial sustainability.     

农业节水激励机制及其措施

水价政策以及水权收益分配模式和节水技术的研究、开发、推广联动机制是农业节水激励机制的重要影响因素.要建立科学合理的农业节水激励机制,关键在于建立以水权为基础的并通过市场机制优化配置水资源的新体制,加快农业水价制度改革,培育水交易市场,依法建立农业节水的经济补偿机制和经济惩罚机制,形成农业节水技术研究与开发和推广的联动机制.