Addressing the Global Water and Environment Crises through Integrated Approaches to the Management of Land,Water and Ecological Resources

Abstract

As the world approaches the 30-year anniversary of the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment and prepares to review progress made in the decade since Dublin and Rio, we are confronted with results that are mostly disappointing. When it comes to addressing the water resources crisis, the 1990s may well be remembered as a decade of debate rather than action. Recent assessments suggest a doubling to almost two-thirds of the world's population experiencing some water stress by 2025 and increased demands to withdraw more water for a new “green revolution” for irrigated agriculture. Both of these will accelerate environmental degradation to a new crisis level while the existing degradation that resulted from the first “green revolution” still awaits remedial action both in the North as well as in the South. It is now clear that the global water crisis and the global environment crisis are linked and are being exacerbated by unprecedented global pressure resulting from over-consumption, population growth, globalization of economic systems and trade, reduction in development assistance, and failure to enact necessary policy, legal, and institutional reforms. This article makes the case that the traditional sector-by-sector approach to economic development is a key contributor to the two global crises. Lessons of experience are presented on policy, legal, and institutional reforms necessary to address the inter-linked crises through integrated approaches to managing land and water resources and their biological diversity. Water pricing reforms, reductions in damaging subsidies, land tenure reforms, community participation, and institutional reforms are necessary. There is a need to build upon the linkages and synergies among the three Rio conventions (climate, biodiversity, and desertification) in order to create new global driving forces for actions to address the crises holistically in the context of a country's national sustainable development strategy. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) and its implementing agencies stand ready with incremental cost grant financing to assist countries willing to undertake the reforms for integrated basin management of land, water and biological resources as they transition towards sustainable development     

Model-based Regional Assessment of Water Use An Example for Semi-arid Northeastern Brazil

Abstract

Water use assessments are a necessary prerequisite for sustainable water resources management and planning in river basins, federal states, or countries. For reasons of transparency, flexibility, ease of update, and the possibility to generate scenarios of future water use, such assessments are best carried out by applying a water use model. To support water resources planning in two federal states of semi-arid Northeastern Brazil, Ceará and Piauí, the regional-scale water use model NoWUM was developed. It computes withdrawal and consumptive water use for each of 332 municipalities, distinguishing five water use sectors: irrigation, livestock, households, industry, and tourism. The model is suited to simulate the impact of global change and of management measures on water demand. Using NoWUM, the present-day water use situation in Ceará and Piauí is assessed. In addition, the impact of inter-annual climate variability and long-term climate change on irrigation requirements is considered. Scarce and uncertain input data lead to a high level of uncertainty in the model results. It is likely that water use in the most important sector, irrigation, is underestimated, while industrial water use is possibly overestimated. With some modifications, NoWUM has the potential to be applied for water use assessments in other data-poor regions of the globe.     

Probable water crisis in Thrace and Istanbul in the near future and a sustainable strategy to overcome it

Abstract

The Thrace Region of Turkey, a passageway from Asia to Europe, which includes the most populated city of Istanbul, is threatened by a water crisis in the very near future. The population of Istanbul alone is forecast to reach 30 millions by the year 2025, requiring 3 billion m³ of water, nearly equal to the total fresh water resources of the region, 3.4 billion m³. In this study, we consider not only the proportion of the available water resources to be allocated for each competing sector, civil, agriculture and industry, but also attempt to outline integrated water management strategies for each sector. The potential of small earth reservoirs, more than 1,500 in number, is emphasised as a way to develop fresh water resources. Water saving policies in the cities and ethics for water use are also briefly discussed.     

The energy trade-offs of adapting to a water-scarce future: case study of Los Angeles

Abstract

Increasing water competition, population growth and global climate change will intensify the tension between water and energy resources in arid climates of the world, since energy costs underscore the challenges facing water security in dry regions. In few places is the tension between water and energy resources more pronounced than in Los Angeles, California. This article analyzes the city’s current water supply and estimates its future energy requirements based on water supply projections from the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. Results suggest that while increasing local water management strategies could reduce the future energy intensity of the water supply, an increased reliance on water transfers could worsen its future energy intensity.     

Application of Decision Support System for Sustainable Management of Water Resources in the Azraq Basin—Jordan

Abstract

Water scarcity in Jordan is a significant constraint to development, with limited available water and financial resources. As population and economic activity increase, it will be necessary to implement national strategies that seek to balance the present needs and those of future generations. Multiple variables associated with agricultural crops, industries, and the impact of climate change, were incorporated into a Decision Support System (DSS). The DSS utilized Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), which resulted in the prioritization of sustainable water policies for management in the Azraq Basin. The inputs to the DSS were generated through application of Modflow (groundwater), stochastic, and Penman Montieth models and through calculations of water productivity for agricultural and industrial sectors. The results of the DSS make recommendations as to how to enhance long-term sustainability of water resources in Azraq, while allowing for water utilization and economic growth. It is recommended for future planning that further research of the impacts to water resources must be conducted at local and national levels and linked to regional and global climate change prediction. It can be concluded that the DSS tool and AHP are potentially positive contributions to the process of decision- making for selection and ranking of alternatives and policies and for help in solving problems that include conflicting criteria.     

A Critique of Existing Water Supply System Reconstruction Policies in the Aftermath of Hurricane Mitch,Northwest Coast of Honduras

Abstract

Hurricane Mitch caused extensive damage to water supply systems (WSS) on the Northwest Coast of Honduras in October. The WSS of four communities were evaluated to determine the effects of the flooding and landslides that occurred during and after the hurricane. Water resource managers were interviewed to determine the WSS reconstruction policy in use at present in order to formulate improvements in this methodology for the future. In this paper, these policy improvements are divided into technical, health-related, socioeconomic, and legal issues. Water main destruction was the most common type of damage. In the future, water mains should be constructed outside of streambed and off steep slopes. Poor water quality results from the four communities suggest that the use of chlorinators, sediment traps, and sand filters must be mandatory in the future. Given that water mains represent some 39 to 52 percent of the cost of a stream- or spring-fed WSS, the use of wells can often significantly decrease the cost of a WSS. However, the higher cost of maintenance and energy necessary to run the pump is an expense that the community bears and can represent a heavy financial burden over the lifetime of the WSS. Those communities which have difficulties in negotiating the purchase of the water sources necessary to supply their WSS, often lack legal advice. Regulatory and administrative functions of the National Autonomous Water and Sewage Company (Servicio Autónomo Nacional de Acueductos y Alcantarillado [SANAA]) must be separated into two separate institutions to avoid conflicts of interest. An insufficient number of professionals in the fields of hydrogeology and sanitary engineering have delayed reconstruction efforts. This situation could be improved by providing short course education to existing professionals and paying higher salaries.     

Water management: some personal reflections

In recent years, books, papers and media coverage of the global water crisis due to physical scarcities of water have become a growth industry. Is this widely accepted hypothesis correct? It is argued in this paper that the world is not facing a water crisis because of physical scarcities of water, as people with linear and compartmentalized thinking are forecasting, but is facing a crisis because of the inefficient way water has been managed in the past and is being managed in nearly all countries of the world. There is at present enough knowledge, experience, technology and even funds to solve the world's water problems for all uses. In addition, the world's future water problems will be very different compared to past and current problems. A new mindset is needed, first to identify the emerging water and water-related problems of the world, and then to find and implement appropriate solutions. Based on the current evidence, there is every reason to be cautiously optimistic of the world's water future.     

Developing new urban water supplies: investigating motivations and barriers to groundwater use in Cape Town

ABSTRACT

Many cities are experiencing increasing water resource stress. In Cape Town, South Africa, surface water supplies are at a record low due to a multi-year drought crisis which began in 2015. This paper analyzes the range of motivations, possibilities and obstacles related to diversifying Cape Town’s water supply system through the upscaling of groundwater resources. Drawing on insights from local experts, it is maintained that uncertainty surrounding groundwater and drought-management practices present significant barriers to Cape Town’s ongoing water diversification efforts. This paper provides further insight and discussion for future water planning in Cape Town, as well as for other urban, water-scarce, regions.     

Integrated Water Resources Management in the Republic of Uzbekistan

Abstract

The Uzbek socio-economic structure is characterized by the transition from a centrally-planned to a market-orientated economy, with a shifting from agricultural production to industrial development. However, the agricultural sector continues to play a significant role in a general economy of the country. The major water sector strategy is to decrease the dependence of agricultural production on climate by introducing advanced irrigation techniques and water saving methods to achieve future sustainable socio-economic development and environmental protection. Water management policy should be flexible enough to adapt to new demands. The regulation of consumption through demand management tools, such as appropriate pricing policies, has recently received greater attention in Uzbekistan. The main thesis of this paper is that allocation of water resources cannot be separated from ecological and economic considerations. The establishment of development objectives and the identification of constraints are also discussed. In the coming years, special attention will need to be paid to the control of water pollution and land salinization, water resources conservation, and acknowledging that actions to increase water productivity are as important as finding additional sources of water.     

21世纪中国水资源危机

分析国内外水资源的现状、中国水资源危机及走向 2 1世纪存在的主要水问题 .说明中国属于世界上贫水的国家之一 ,人均拥有量只占世界平均水平的 2 5% ,在 6 6 8座城市中有 4 0 0余座缺水 .进入 2 1世纪 ,中国的水资源矛盾将进一步加剧 ,洪灾、干旱、断流、水污染、水土流失等问题将继续存在 .中国必须进行大规模国土整治 ,逆转恶化的水生态环境 ,合理开发、利用、保护水资源 .     

Appraisal and Assessment of World Water Resources

Abstract

A critical analysis of the present situation on the global water resources assessment is made. Basic data and methodological approaches used by the author for the assessment and prediction of water resources, water use and water availability on the global scale are briefly described. On the basis of data generalization of the world hydrological network new data are given on the dynamics of renewable water resources of the continents, physiographic and economic regions, selected countries as well as on the river water inflow to the world ocean. The results of the assessments for the 20^th century and for the future before 2010–2025 on the water supply for municipal, industrial and agricultural needs as well as an additional evaporation from reservoirs are presented. Loads on water resources and water availability depending on socio-economic and phisiographic factors are analyzed; regions of water scarcity and water resources deficit are discovered. Possible ways of water supply improvement and elimination of water resources deficit in different regions and countries are discussed     

The Role of Collective Action in Water Governance: A Comparative Study of Groundwater User Associations in La Mancha Aquifers in Spain

Abstract

The paper analyzes the problem of collective water management in Spain. The paper has two main objectives: first it provides a brief introduction on long established traditions for collective water management under Water User Associations (WUAs), some dating back to the twelfth century. It discusses the legislative and institutional frameworks that have favored collective water management. The second objective is an analysis at a more specific level, by focusing on the particular case of groundwater as a traditional common pool resource and the problem of mutually beneficial collective action (MBCA). It does so by applying the Institutional Development Framework and an in depth analysis of key factors leading to MBCA. A comparative case study approach is applied to three main aquifers in the central Mancha region. It points to the importance that WUAS can play in facilitating factors that encourage collective action. It also highlights the relevance of social capital as trust between WUAs and the administration, like Water Authorities. It concludes that while solutions like subsidies and payments can help mitigate aquifer overuse, these are not a long-term or sustainable option (economically or sustainably). Only sound institutional design of Water User organizations can favor self-governance and management by farmers.     

What is Public Participation in Water Resources Management and Why is it Important?

Abstract:

Australia has undergone comprehensive water policy reforms since the mid‐1990s. These reforms have imposed considerable uncertainties with respect to future supply and passed the risk management burden from water authorities to irrigators. There is, therefore, an increased need for risk management tools to assist irrigators in managing this increased uncertainty. Water markets are seen as important tools for managing this uncertainty and in assisting irrigation communities in the necessary adjustment process. Australia, therefore, provides an excellent case study in the extent to which irrigators have used markets as a risk management tool. It is concluded that allocation markets have been used by irrigators to manage uncertainty and risk within and between seasons while entitlement markets have been used to adjust irrigators’ risk position in the long term, resulting in subsequent use of the allocation market to manage this new risk position. However, there is clear evidence that the substantial uncertainty with respect to future supply has made irrigators reluctant to use the entitlement market and has therefore seen them rely heavily on the allocation market to manage their existing risk position. Also, existing water trading arrangements are impeding new investments in high value, efficient production systems. To address these two issues and to remove these impediments a new National Water Initiative is presently being implemented.     

Integrated water and food analysis at the global and basin level. An application of WATERSIM

Several recent studies warn that under ‘Business-as-Usual’ a water crisis is impending, suggesting that appropriate actions need to be taken on the water supply and demand side. While many measures to alleviate water scarcity are within the water sector, it is increasingly recognized that many drivers, policies and institutions outside the water sector have large and real implications on how water is being allocated and used. Important drivers for water use include population and income growth, urbanization, trade and other macroeconomic policies, environmental regulations and climate policy. While some of these processes and trends, especially those at global level, may prove difficult to influence directly, it is important to understand their linkages with water issues to analyze the relative impact of various policies in the agricultural and water sectors on water and food security. The strong linkages between economic trends, agricultural policies and water use call for an integrated and multidisciplinary modelling approach. The WATERSIM model, developed by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is a suitable tool to explore the impacts of water and food related policies on global and regional water demand and supply, food production and the environment. This paper introduces the WATERSIM model and, using some preliminary results, illustrates the importance of global economic trends on food and water outcomes.     

Executive Summary—Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option

An estimated 1,800 million people need improved water supplies in the fifteen years to the end of the century, if developing countries are to reach the target of full coverage. The first half of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990) has seen increases in the percentages of the rural population with access to safe water supplies, but only in Asia has the pace been quick enough to envisage a target of essentiahy full coverage by the end of the century (ten years later than the original Decade goals). In Africa, present progress rates would leave half of the rural population still without safe water in the year 2000, while in Latin America, it may be ten years into the next century before full coverage is achieved unless progress improves dramatically.

Accelerated progress is hampered by financial and technical resource constraints faced by many developing countries, and the problem is aggravated by the growing number of completed projects which are broken down and abandoned, or functioning much below capacity. Attempts to increase the pace of providing improved community water supplies have often been frustrated because the technology used has proved impossible to sustain in village conditions.

To make a lasting impact on the urgent needs, community water supply (CWS) strategies must be based on sustainable and replicable programs, and must take account of the pace at which resource constraints can be overcome. Human resource development programs take time to produce results, and institutional changes can only be accomplished gradually.     

The fate of the City of Mutare's urban water supply as changing climate impacts on its source in the Pungwe sub-catchment

Sustaining a steady supply of water to urban communities is of importance in a period that is characterised by rapid urban population growth, a global pandemic, and a changing climate that threatens the availability of the resource from its sources. Water supply to the City of Mutare is from three sources, Small Bridge Dam, Odzani, and the Pungwe River. The Pungwe source provides better quality water resources equivalent to the combined quantity supplied by the other two. It becomes an important source for the city, but climate change threatens the availability of water resources in the southern African region. Thus, it is imperative to quantitatively assess the impacts of a changing climate on water resources to enable the development of sustainable management alternatives. Using two carbon emission scenarios Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5, the study assesses the future availability of water resources from the Pungwe River to the City of Mutare using the Pitman hydrological model applied in an uncertainty framework. Available historical streamflow observations at gauging station F14 indicate a Q₉₅ flow of about 2 Mm³/year. Projected future water resources at the end of the 21st century show a slight increase of up to 2.38% under the low carbon emission scenario (RCP4.5) and a decrease of up to 9.73%under the high carbon emission scenario (RCP8.5). These model-generated results are useful to water managers to plan for catchment management strategies that would ensure continuous urban water supply, and the identification and development of possible future alternative water sources.     

Challenges to Manage the Risk of Water Scarcity and Climate Change in the Mediterranean

The Mediterranean region is undergoing rapid local and global social and environmental changes. All indicators point to an increase in environmental and water scarcity problems with negative implications towards current and future sustainability. Water management in Mediterranean countries is challenged these pressures and needs to evolve to reach the target of increasing population with reliable access to freshwater established by the Millennium Development Goals. This paper first reviews and evaluates current and future social and environmental pressures on water resources, including climate change. The results show that pressures are not homogeneous across the region and sectors of water use. Second the paper evaluates the adaptation strategies to cope with water scarcity, including technology, use of strategic groundwater, and management. Finally, the paper proposes a framework for managing the risk of water scarcity based on preparedness rather than a crisis approach. The importance of local management at the basin level is emphasized, but the potential benefits depend on the appropriate multi-institutional and multi-stakeholder coordination.     

Rules and Roles in Water Policy and Management

Abstract

Water policy and management are currently subject to a significant change. Water users and other stakeholders are gradually playing a much more active and also constructive role. This is no substitute for government efforts. Public sector activities and regulatory arrangements are of vital importance. Traditional functions and orientation of work need, however, to be modified, and new tasks are forcing themselves on to the national, municipal, and local agendas. Interaction between government, civil society organizations, and professionals must be based on a policy where water is made everybody's business and where the various components of management, i.e., development of the resource, provision, actual use, and disposal after use, are considered. With a policy where the relations between water, people, development, and the environment are duly recognised, it becomes imperative and natural that the rules for water management are defined that allow various stakeholders to contribute to achieve water security.     

世界水日、中国水周主题下的水资源发展回顾与展望

基于历年世界水日、中国水周主题及其变化热点,梳理水资源在自然环境、人类社会生活中的现实发展变化情况;分析水资源在现代社会可持续发展中的作用,展现水资源科学发展的时代强音;论述当前全球对水资源的管理和保护措施,世界水日主题变化呈现由人类出发到人类与自然和谐共处的趋势,中国水周主题变化始终与政府宏观水资源的政策相关;世界水日与中国水周发展进程中,人类与水资源和谐共处的生态思想逐渐体现,显示了世界范围内人与自然和谐相处的理念逐渐深入人心。     

Proposing a solution to India’s water crisis: ‘paradigm shift’ or pushing outdated concepts?

Abstract

This article is a critique of the report of the committee chaired by Dr Mihir Shah on restructuring the Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board of India. It shows that the recommendations of the committee are not based on any sound understanding of the federal nature of water administration in India, water-sector performance or the problems confronting it. The ‘paradigm shift’ in the suggested approach to water management is based on flawed analysis of the performance of surface irrigation systems and outdated concepts of irrigation efficiency, and reflects the professional bias of its members against large water infrastructure and wishful thinking about what schemes like aquifer mapping can achieve.