Environmental and Economic Aspects of Wastewater Reuse in Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT

The annual rainfall in Saudi Arabia is less than 100 mm/year and there are no rivers or lakes. Therefore, the renewable surface and groundwater resources are not sufficient to meet increasing demand in the domestic, commercial, industrial, and agricultural sectors. To supplement the deficit in water balance there is a growing interest in reuse of reclaimed wastewater. This article discusses wastewater reuse in Saudi Arabia, considering its environmental, economic, and social implications. Potential uses of reclaimed wastewater include irrigation, industrial processes, and groundwater recharge. Highly purified wastewater can also be used for domestic purposes including religious rituals according to the Islamic Sharia Law, provided that it has no adverse health effects. The unit cost of a tertiary treated effluent from a treatment plant in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia was estimated to be 1.1 SR (Saudi Riyals)/m^3.      

Comparative Evaluation Of Surface Water Availability,Wastewater Reuse And Desalination In Saudi Arabia

ABSRTACT

There is a growing concern in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to exploit water resources of acceptable quality to meet demands in domestic, industrial, and agricultural sectors. The agricultural water need, which constitutes approximately 84% of the total demand, was estimated to be 7430 million cubic meters in 1985. The annual domestic and other demands amounted to 1400 million cubic meters for 1985. Various alternative supplies to meet these demands are surface water, renewable groundwater resources, reclaimed wastewater, desalinated water, and non-renewable groundwater. Due to excessive withdrawal of water from deep aquifers, considerable drawdown has recently been noticed.

This paper reviews the existing and future trends in developing surface water resources, reclamation of waste-water from various towns and cities and its use, and the role of desalination plants in the coastal regions of the Arabian Gulf and Red Sea. These alternatives are evaluated and compared in economic terms. Cost-capacity relationships are developed for various alternatives which will be used in developing long-term plans for optimum allocation of available resources in different parts of the Kingdom.     

Application of Islamic Legal Principles for Advanced Water Management

Abstract

Saudi Arabia experienced extensive and rapid developments in all sectors during the last two decades with a rapid and vast increase in water demand. The country follows the sacred principles of the Muslim law “Shari'a,” where water is considered the common entitlement of all Muslims. In the last decades, however, the traditional methods for satisfying the limited water needs have been modified in accordance with Islamic laws to meet the rise in water demand and organize water management issues. Legislation and institutions, new water pricing policies, demand reduction techniques, and regulations for well drilling have been introduced. Support of cultivation of some crops has been modified to minimize irrigation water use, and modern irrigation techniques have been practiced to reduce water losses and demand. The Council of Muslim Leading Scholars has given pioneering examples of the flexibility of Islam by issuing a special Fatwa to regulate the reuse of treated effluents for different purposes. This has promoted wastewater recycling by the public. The Islamic principles used in Saudi Arabia have helped to improve water demand management, and the gained experience can benefit other countries.     

Integrated Resource Planning for Water and Wastewater

Abstract

This paper describes the use of integrated resource planning for water and wastewater service provision by a major urban water utility. This methodology aims to meet the water and sewerage needs of the community at the least cost and includes an explicit analysis of the costs and benefits of measures that reduce the demand for water and the discharge of wastewater effluent. It therefore requires disaggregation of the demand for water into end-uses and a consideration of the linkages between the water supply and sewerage components of the business. This approach has significant advantages in economic, environmental, and social terms. The case study results indicate that significant investments in water efficiency programs are justified on economic grounds, particularly where augmentation of water and sewerage infrastructure is planned. Three studies undertaken as part of Sydney Water's efforts to integrate supply- and demand-side planning are described in this paper: first, a major integrated resource planning exercise designed to reduce demand for water by up to 35 percent, costing more than AU$25 million; second, a case study in a series of small towns where the benefits arise from reducing the capacity of sewage treatment plants by reducing wastewater flow; and third, in a major industrial region where water efficiency measures integrated with reuse measures reduce overall costs.     

Evaluating the economic viability of solar-powered desalination: Saudi Arabia as a case study

Abstract

This article constructs a cost calculator to estimate the economic competitiveness of solar-powered desalination in Saudi Arabia. Solar desalination is defined as a plant that obtains solar energy from a closed system. This is done to focus the investigation on desalination technologies, rather than the efficacy of replacing conventional energy sources with renewables in an integrated electricity grid. The results suggest that current options for solar-powered desalination are not cost-competitive compared to incumbent technologies in Saudi Arabia. The article offers insight into where costs must decrease before solar technologies are economically competitive in the country.     

Facing Water Scarcity in Jordan

Abstract

Jordan is extremely water-scarce with just 167 m³ per capita per year to meet domestic, industrial, agricultural, tourism, and environmental demands. The heavy exploitation of water resources has contributed to declines in the levels of aquifers and the Dead Sea. Rapid growth in demand, particularly for higher quality water for domestic, industrial, and tourism uses, is significantly increasing pressure on agricultural and environmental uses of water, both of which must continue to adapt to reduced volumes and lower quality water. The agricultural sector has begun to respond by improving irrigation efficiency and increasing the use of recycled water. Total demand for water still exceeds renewable supplies while inadequate treatment of sewage used for irrigation creates potential environmental and health risks and presents agricultural marketing challenges that undermine the competitiveness of exports. The adaptive capability of the natural environment may already be past sustainable limits with oasis wetlands having been most seriously affected. Development of new water resources is extremely expensive in Jordan with an average investment cost of US$4 to $5 per cubic meter. This paper examines four integrated water resources management (IWRM) approaches of relevance to Jordan: water reuse, demand management, energy-water linkages, and transboundary water management. While progress in Jordan has been made, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation continues to be concerned about the acute water scarcity the country faces as well as the need to continue working with concerned stakeholders to assure future water supplies.     

Water Losses from Municipal Utilities and their Impacts

ABSTRACT

During the past few years the city of Ar-Riyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia, has seen a significant increase in urbanization, from a gross residential area of 8,500 ha in 1980 to 62,712 ha in 1990. This 638 per cent increase in urbanization, accompanied by a 91 per cent increase in population (from 850,000 to 1,622,000), has led to a great increase in water consumption that has reached 620 l/cap/day. Most of this water is imported into the Ar-Riyadh environment, but the capability of that environment to dispose of the excess water or wastewater by means of infiltration or evaporation is limited. Consequently the city has begun to experience a rise in the groundwater level that is causing a variety of problems for its citizens.

This paper outlines the methodologies and discusses the results from a field study of water losses from the municipal wet infrastructures in six selected areas of Ar-Riyadh that included the potable water the sanitary sewer and the storm drainage networks. More emphasis was put on the field identification of leakage from the potable water network that approached 16 per cent of the water fed into the areas. Thus Ar-Riyadh compares well with other cities around the world where leakage has been reported to be in the range between 5 and 50 per cent. Losses from the sanitary and storm drainage systems were 7 and 4.5 per cent respectively. Besides the impacts on buildings and infrastructure services, the cost of potable water lost by leakage on its own, estimated at a minimum value of US$50 million per year is a considerable economic loss.     

Desalination of Seawater using Geothermal Energy to Meet Future Fresh Water Demand of Saudi Arabia

The future economy of the Middle East countries (GDP growth) depends on the availability of fresh water for domestic and agricultural sectors. Saudi Arabia, for example, consumes 275 L/day per capita of water that is generated from desalination process using 134 x 10⁶ kWh of electricity. With 6 % population growth rate, demand for fresh water from fossil fuel based desalination plants will grow at an alarming rate. It has been reported that Saudi Arabia’s reliance on fossil fuels to generate electricity and generate fresh water through desalination using the same energy source is economically and politically unsustainable. This may lead to destabilisation of the global economy. However, Saudi Arabia has large geothermal resources along the Red Sea coast that can be developed to generate power and support the generation of fresh water through desalination. The cost of fresh water can be further lowered from the current US$ 0.03/m³. Among the gulf countries, Saudi Arabia can become the leader in controlling CO₂ emissions and mitigating the impact on climate change and agricultural production. This will enable the country to meet the growing demand of food and energy for the future population for several decades and to reduce food imports.     

Global Water Demand and Supply Projections

Abstract

This paper presents a modeling approach for projections of water demand and supply for domestic, industrial, livestock, and irrigation at the basin or country level in a global scope. Particular emphasis is put on simulating water availability for crops taking into account total renewable water, non-irrigation water demand, water supply infrastructure, and economic and environmental policies at the basin or country level. This paper focuses on concepts and methodology involved in the modeling exercise. Data assessment and results are presented in a companion paper (Rosegrant and Cai, 2002).     

Reuse of wastewater effluent for irrigation in severely arid regions

Al‐Hassa oasis, with an estimated population of 750000, is one of the main agricultural areas in Saudi Arabia. The estimated present agricultural water consumption in the oasis is almost 419 × 10⁶ m³ per year and the water is mainly supplied from the aquifer systems in the oasis. The climate is severely arid and the groundwater resources are limited. A deficiency in irrigation water supplies would occur in the oasis, especially during the summer season, without the reuse of wastewater effluent. Alternative schemes were developed on the basis of climatic, irrigation method, crop, health and economic considerations for the potential reuse of wastewater effluent for irrigation purposes. The schemes suggested different alternatives for reuse of the untreated effluent or with various types of additional treatments needed to render the water free of health hazards and suitable for agricultural use. An expected average wastewqter effluent of about 32.2 × 10⁶ m³/year will be available for irrigation purposes. This will result in minimizing the mining of groundwater and in conserving the water resources in Al‐Hassa oasis.     

Wastewater Reuse as Means to Optimize the Use of Water Resources in the West Bank

Abstract

The increase in demand for the limited raw water resources in the Palestinian Territories has led to the proposals for use of treated wastewater as one alternative for alleviating water shortages and for optimizing the use of water resources. Wastewater reuse is a multi-discipline and important element of water resources development. Wastewater usage releases high quality water for drinking and other purposes. Quantitative, economic, and social aspects related to wastewater reuse in the West Bank are discussed. Through analyses of the estimated cost and expected water quantities, the paper investigates the economic feasibility of wastewater reuse. Social acceptance is elicited by means of questionnaires, which have been applied to farmers and inhabitants in different areas of the West Bank. Wastewater reuse can compensate for about 10 percent of irrigated agriculture, which contributes 35 percent of the total value of the Palestinian agricultural sector. The paper presents an analysis of the main aspects of wastewater reuse and defines an approach to the beneficial use of wastewater as a component that should be considered in the strategy for the overall management of water resources in the Palestinian Territories.     

Water management in India: the multiplicity of views and solutions

Abstract

There is very limited scientific evidence to support some of the ideas in the water sector that guide India’s government policies in these sectors. Further, the interdisciplinary perspective required for the design of economic instruments, institutions, and laws and regulations to implement existing policies is lacking in social scientists. This article discusses the growing debate on water management options for India, the tone and tenor of policy debate and the inconsistency. It summarizes 10 scholarly articles from various authors which reflect the multiplicity of views on water issues and solutions for water management in the country.     

Storm Water Harvesting in Saudi Arabia: a Multipurpose Water Management Alternative

This work evaluates the potential for rainwater harvesting at the household level in the dry climate of Saudi Arabia. The amounts of rainwater that can be harvested in several cities in Saudi Arabia were estimated and it was found that a significant volume, exceeding 7.5 m³/100 m² per year, can be harvested. The per cubic meter cost of harvesting rainwater was compared to that of producing desalinated water. It was found that harvested rainwater is cheaper to capture than desalinated water produced from renewable energy-driven desalination plants, but that is not the case for fossil fuel-powered desalination. The study also considered the effects of rainwater harvesting on mitigating floods and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. A cost-benefit analysis of installing rooftop rainwater harvesting systems in Saudi Arabia was performed. It revealed that it is economically feasible to harvest rain in cities including Hail, Jeddah, Taif, and Riyadh, while it is not recommended in the holy cities of Makkah, Medina, and Buraidah.     

Preliminary Assessment of Water Quality along the Red Sea Coast near Jeddah,Saudi Arabia

Abstract

This paper presents the results of preliminary assessment of water quality along Red Sea coast adjoining Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Jeddah is a major city with a population of over 2.6 million and an area 1,200 km^2.. To study the impacts, samples of the Red Sea were collected from 24 important locations near Jeddah and analyzed in the laboratory for various water quality parameters. These parameters included: biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrates, sulfates, total alkalinity, chlorides, and pH. The results of the study show considerable variations in water quality depending upon the location along the Red Sea coast. The BOD values in the sea water are negligible except in the Balad downtown lake near treatment plant where the values are quite high ranging from 51 to 812 mg/l. Here, the total phosphorus is also high with value of 3.81 mg/l. Dissolved oxygen values along the coast vary from 2.5 to 6.4 mg/l. The variations in nitrate concentration in the Red Sea water along the coast are observed to range from 6.90 to 26.61 mg/l. This study provides a preliminary assessment of the coastal pollution and will act as a data base for future investigations and monitoring of the Red Sea coastal waters.     

The Role of Desalination in Meeting Water Supply Demands in Western Asia

Abstract

The increasing gap between the supply and demand for water in the Economic and Social Commission of Western Asia (ESCWA) member countries: Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen) can be attributed to the limited availability of surface water, mining of fossil groundwater sources, and water pollution mainly of shallow aquifers, deficient institutional structure, poor management processes, and inapt allocation of financial resources. The non-sustainable use of natural water resources to meet the escalating water demand has also contributed to the depletion and deterioration of water quality and quantity. To meet water supply shortages in the domestic sector, water desalination has been entrenched as a viable option for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which includes the following countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. The objective of the paper is to investigate the role of water desalination in meeting the water demands in the ESCWA member countries. The significant role of desalination is highlighted with emphasis in evaluating not only its production trends, processes, and costs, but also its capacity in the provision of water demands. Water desalination has become a major and staunch water source for a number of large urban centers. For such countries such as Bahrain, Kuwait, and Qatar and the coastal zone areas of Oman, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia, desalination represents one of the most feasible and strategic alternative options for their current and future domestic water supply requirement. Given the high consumption rate from this source and its high production cost, fundamental efforts must be integrated and invested in both research and development programs to implement comprehensive conservation measures that would lead to a reduction in the consumption rates. Parallel to these achievements, efforts should be directed within the context of integrated management of water resources, to identify alternative potential water resources, to meet future water challenges.     

The Water-Economy Nexus: a Composite Index Approach to Evaluate Urban Water Vulnerability

Resource scarcity is a driving force behind water conservation and reuse as urban areas seek strategies to adapt to population growth and environmental challenges. Although there are numerous indicators that examine urban water resource and demand characteristics, these approaches do not tie together how aspects like economic health, environmental conditions, and population growth correlate with local water conservation to demonstrate a city’s ability to cope with water resource vulnerability. This research develops a conceptual framework for the Water-Economy Index (WEI) which characterizes social, economic, and environmental dynamics of water reuse and conservation. The application specifically utilizes a principal component analysis (PCA) to evaluate how hydro-economic indicators (including water demand intensity, demand for recycled water, economic productivity of water, unemployment, and allocations of water resources) are correlated and can impact sustainability goals. The PCA method aggregates indicators into three groups: socio-economic, water allocation, and socio-environmental indicators. The most influential indicators within each group are economic productivity of water, wastewater reuse, and consumptive water demand, respectively. The WEI ranks of 49 cities are compared to identify shared traits across individual indicators and to demonstrate the application of the WEI for benchmarking. The results provide insight into the complex relationship between the characteristics of an urban area’s water demand and socio-economic performance.

     

Exporting water from the desert? An analysis of the virtual water content of Saudi Arabian agricultural exports

This study applies input-output analysis to evaluate and trace Saudi Arabia’s virtual water exports arising from exports of agricultural products. Saudi Arabia’s total virtual exports in 2011 were around 2.42 km³, mainly to neighbouring Arab countries. This amount is enough to meet the water demand of the country’s entire population. Agricultural exports seem economically beneficial only because they rely on groundwater; however, since the indirect cost of desalinating equivalent amounts of water for domestic purposes is much higher, a better strategy would have been to direct those water resources towards domestic needs.     

Moving Water to Move People The Toshka Project in Egypt A Water Forum Contribution

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to provide an initial assessment of Egypt's plan to resettle population from the Nile Valley to the Western Desert. Known popularly as the Toshka Project, it is formally titled the National Project for the Development of Upper Egypt (NPDUE). The resettlement scheme is entirely dependent on the provision of a reliable source of freshwater. This water will be taken from Lake Nassar, behind the Aswan High Dam, and pumped through a series of canals into the desert, thereby allowing for irrigated agriculture. Through an extensive review of government documents and interviews with both government officials and Egyptian residents (who might be asked to move to the desert), we were able to develop a basic understanding of the project and a preliminary assessment of its potential for success. This was accomplished despite the paucity of published information about the project. To assess the possible success of the project, we looked at six key factors: economic, donor investment, demographics, water availability, technical, and environmental. In the end, it appears that the success of the Toshka project is highly dependent on a continued source of private capital. This capital is expected to come from other Arab countries, and, to date, the major investor in Toshka is Saudi Prince Al Walid. The Egyptian government claims that public investment in the project will be no more than 20 to 25 percent of the total, and adhering to this claim will be important; higher levels of public investment are likely to increase inflationary pressures in the country. The paper concludes with an assessment of whether the potential impacts of the project—whether economic, demographic, or environmental—are likely to offset the projected benefits of resettling seven million people out of the densely populated Nile Valley.     

The Virtual Water Metaphor Enhances Policy Discussions Regarding Scarce Resources

Abstract

In a recent issue of Water International, three authors discuss their views of the virtual water metaphor that is used to describe the water embedded in crops that are traded in international markets. The term ‘virtual water’ was created originally to gain the attention of public officials responsible for choosing policies that influence water use in arid regions. Over time, both the terminology and the scope of the virtual water metaphor have been extended beyond the original purpose. This paper supports the view that the virtual water metaphor is helpful in encouraging public officials to consider the scarcity value (opportunity cost) of water when designing policies that influence water use. The paper proposes, also, that the policy relevance of the virtual water metaphor is found primarily in its application to issues regarding the supply of agricultural products, rather than demand. The distinction between supply and demand issues and the potential value of the virtual water metaphor in policy discussions regarding supply are demonstrated using three examples of water allocation decisions, described within the framework of economic optimization. The examples include wheat production in Saudi Arabia and the production of sudangrass and ethanol in the United States.     

Groundwater Vulnerability and the Reuse of Water,with Reference to Saudi Arabia

It is noted that an integrated water supply system incorporating surface water, groundwater and recycled water is essential and that in the definition of groundwater resources consideration should be given to the inclusion of some brackish and saline waters. The abstraction of groundwater in Saudi Arabia, irrespective of quality, is a mining operation so that increasing emphasis will need to be placed on desalinization and the recycling of sewage and industrial waste waters. Aspects of the reuse of such waters are discussed with respect to aquifer protection and aquifer value as a storage medium.