Economic Aspects of Soil Conservation Programs in Less-Developed Countries (LDCs)

ABSTRACT

This article evaluates the prospects for rainfall-runoff water harvesting as a means of increasing water supplies in Greater Amman and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Rain/all-runoff water harvesting is a small-scale water conservation approach for catching/storing rainfalls and certain runoff waters in a localized area. before the waters enter the usual hydrologic cycle. Generally the methods are small basic impounding concepts as compared with larger-scale river dams and reservoirs. Catchment of rainfall drainage from a building roof with tank storage is the commonest practice. This is an age-old practice used to sustain populations, mostly in arid areas of the world, but also in areas where water distribution systems are unavailable. In the following text, water harvesting yields are calculated for residential roofs and for the potential from commercial and industrial areas. as of 1990 and projected to 2005. The results show that rainfall-runoff water harvesting is an increasingly attractive consideration in arid areas facing acute water supply shortages, for both villages and urban centers.     

Water Treatment for Rural Areas with Emphasis on Sudan

ABSTRACT

Groundwater conditions in the South Coast Region of Kenya are examined in terms of the quantity and quality of the water derived from boreholes in the region. Both the quality and quantity are found to be generally acceptable for expected uses in the area A new parameter used to define the degree and sensitivity of violations in the quality conditions is introduced and demonstrated.     

Evolution of Water Planning in New Mexico and Implications for Transboundary Groundwater Allocation

Abstract

Before 1983, the market allocated water in New Mexico under the prior-appropriation system; we prohibited export of groundwater to other states. We found, however, that the simple prohibition is unconstitutional, and that water can be withheld only if shown to be needed for the “public welfare.” Water planning began in 1987, to determine which waters (perhaps all) would be needed during the next 40 years. It has become clear that water planning has another value —the reconciliation of future supply with expected demands—which may provide more orderly reallocation than the market would, especially for aesthetic and environmental water uses that are not directly represented in the market. Our water planning seems to be supplanting the legal processes with negotiation, and to be shifting the emphasis from administration of water rights to management of real water. Diverse water-use interests within the planning regions in New Mexico are learning to negotiate their future water-management, and the 16 regions are beginning to interact with each other toward the same end. A strictly technical “wet-water” management plan that shows how the needs of all interests can be best met with the water and the capital available, and at least temporarily setting aside the legal issues, seems to be the best foundation for negotiation. The tentative settlement of a long, unfruitful legal struggle over the Pecos River is a case in point. The same principal seems promising for dealing with transboundary groundwater allocation on a larger scale.     

Establishing a water law framework: The Colombia example

Abstract

This paper identifies basic elements to be considered in formulating a general water law. It presents these elements using a four‐part general framework: the hydrologic cycle, human uses, physical and ecological functions, and institutional arrangements. It applies this framework to the Republic of Colombia's water law, based on which recommendations for possible revisions are offered.     

Identifying Water Security Issues at the Local Level

Abstract

Water security has been traditionally thought to be an issue for developing countries. In the United States, the Clean Water Act has made water quality and watershed management increasingly relevant to community decision makers. However, the extent to which local stakeholders perceive and understand water scarcity and quality constraints in the United States remains uncertain. The reported research uses a series of focus groups to evaluate their efficacy and for learning from local beneficiaries about local water security concerns for mid-Michigan's Red Cedar River. In Michigan, it appears that the water security issue is water quality. The findings show that focus groups are effective data collection tools and that Michigan stakeholders recognize water security problems, causes, and potential solutions.     

Guyana, “Land of Waters,” Moves to Harness Hydro Potential

ABSTRACT

Heavy metal concentrations (cadmium, chromium, lead, zinc) in 46 cistern water supply systems from single-family dwellings on St. Maarten, Netherlands Antilles were considerably below US drinking water limits in most cases. Release of zinc, lead, and cadmium in the distribution system, which is not related to the corrosiveness of the cistern water, caused lead and cadmium to exceed the US Public Health Service standard for 3 (6.5%) and 1 (2.2%) of the cisterns, respectively.

The following recommendations are suggested for protecting the roof catchment drinking water supply against heavy metal contamination:

? engineer the withdrawal of cistern water to exclude the metal-laden sediment

? identify appropriate paints to be used for cistern collection systems

? install substituted materials, protective coatings, and replacement of corroded metal parts in the distribution system

? discourage the usage of metal containers (e.g., oil) for prolonged water storage

? expand cistern water quality analyses to include lead

? exercise plumbosolvency control by treating the cistern water before distribution.

These recommendations, based on the case study, also apply to other areas of the world where cisterns of similar construction are used or are being planned.     

Irrigation Water Quality Requirements

ABSTRACT

Rational use of salinized water contributes to the saving of water resources, enlargement of irrigated areas and increased volumes of agricultural produce. It is ascertained that there are several distinguishable levels in irrigation water quality requirements, depending on climatic conditions, drainage conditions OF the territory, fertility, texture and properties of soil, and salt resistance of agricultural crops. In cases where irrigation water quality requirements are not adhered to soil fertility deteriorates, thereby reducing the yield and quality of agricultural produce.

Restrictions on irrigation water quality increase with transfer From the desert zone to dry steppe and steppe.

Thus, the source of irrigation water should be assessed from the viewpoint of alkalinization and salinization hazards with respect to crops of different salt resistance in the steppe, dry steppe and desert zones.     

Basin Planning for the Sula Valley in Honduras

ABSTRACT

Pathogenic microorganisms were studied in river waters, ground water and recreational hot baths. Free-living amoebae and bacteria were located in their natural sites, and the influence of physical and chemical variations on their ecology was studied. Microbiological contamination increases from ground water to the rivers and depends on human and animal activities. Rhine waters are heavily contaminated with Enterobacteriaceae, pathogenic Naegleria and Legionella. Amoebae are likely to be natural hosts for Legionella. Intra-cellular replication and inclusion in resistant cysts of amoebae give them a possibility of survival in unfavorable conditions. The heavy amoebical and bacteriological contamination of recreational hot baths poses a potential risk for swimmers. Cleaning and chlor-ination of the pools is a good preventive against waterborne infections.     

Preliminary Assessment of Water Quality along the Red Sea Coast near Jeddah,Saudi Arabia

Abstract

This paper presents the results of preliminary assessment of water quality along Red Sea coast adjoining Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Jeddah is a major city with a population of over 2.6 million and an area 1,200 km^2.. To study the impacts, samples of the Red Sea were collected from 24 important locations near Jeddah and analyzed in the laboratory for various water quality parameters. These parameters included: biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrates, sulfates, total alkalinity, chlorides, and pH. The results of the study show considerable variations in water quality depending upon the location along the Red Sea coast. The BOD values in the sea water are negligible except in the Balad downtown lake near treatment plant where the values are quite high ranging from 51 to 812 mg/l. Here, the total phosphorus is also high with value of 3.81 mg/l. Dissolved oxygen values along the coast vary from 2.5 to 6.4 mg/l. The variations in nitrate concentration in the Red Sea water along the coast are observed to range from 6.90 to 26.61 mg/l. This study provides a preliminary assessment of the coastal pollution and will act as a data base for future investigations and monitoring of the Red Sea coastal waters.     

Bacteriological Quality of Rainwater in Roof and Ground Catchment Systems in Botswana

ABSTRACT

Bacteriological analyses were conducted on water samples from 13 roof tanks and 8 ground catchment tanks in Botswana in 1983. The results show that rainwater collected from corrugated iron roofs and stored in covered tanks is of high quality compared with traditional water sources and could provide a safe drinking water supply. The results for the ground catchment tanks, however, indicated that the water posed a serious health hazard. This is significant since several hundred ground tanks are already being used to provide water for other things besides human consumption. Since more ground tanks are planned both in Botswana and elsewhere in Africa the fencing of the catchment area and the use of simple sand and charcoal filters are recommended as the most practical means of insuring improved water quality in ground tanks.     

The Perception of Water Quality Among Rural Communities in South-Western Nigeria: Lesson for Planners

ABSTRACT

“Clean water for all” is one of the goals of the UN International Drinking Supply and Sanitation Decade 1981–90. This goal to be accomplished, requires a level of governmental investment which is difficult to reach in many developing countries. This is particularly so of Nigeria where a vast majority of rural people is yet to benefit from improved water supply and where the level of priority accorded domestic water supply is dismally low, with some states devoting just about 1% of their total capital expenditure to water supply provision.

At the same time, there is evidence that the rural people in many places, aware of the advantages of good water sources and the disadvantages of bad ones, show preferences for and undertake development programmes connected with good quality water supply: this is here exemplified by three rural communities in southwestern Nigeria. Not only are these people knowledgeable about water quality and its relationship with health, they are also eager to seize any feasible opportunities to improve their water supply situation.

It is argued that rather than rely on gigantic time-consuming, capital intensive and difficult to maintain schemes, as we have presently with government projects, more modest ones within the competence of the rural communities should be encouraged.     

Informal water markets and community management in peri-urban Luanda,Angola

ABSTRACT

The majority of Angola’s peri-urban population still rely on informal mechanisms for water supply. This water is expensive and of poor quality, representing a significant household expenditure for the urban poor. The article uses qualitative tools and tracking of the supply chain to analyze the scope of the informal water economy in Luanda. Marketing water at the local household level involves significant trading in social capital. A financially sustainable model of community water management that builds on this neighbourhood social capital has been adopted by the government for implementation across the country.     

Water Distribution Control Model in the Yellow River Basin

Abstract

This study develops a water distribution control model to manage and operate a multipurpose, multi-reservoir system in the Yellow River Basin. The aim is to make the best use of limited water resources and to coordinate different uses. The overall control task is made up of two processes. An initial distribution scheme is obtained through a simulation model first, then the scheme's output suggestions are adjusted by a harmony index which is considered as a feedback regulator, and the order parameter in synergetic theory is applied in this regulator. Control criteria and a subsequent application of the method are presented. Case studies indicate that the proposed control process facilitates quick and efficient distribution control and can provide both theoretical and technical support for sustainable water resources development in the Yellow River in China.     

RESEARCH SUPPORTED BY IWRA SCHOLARSHIP AWARD

ABSTRACT

Eighteen samples of treated drinking water and their source waters in three Canadian cities were tested for coliphage, bacteriophage and bacterial content. In the source waters, bacterial concentrations varied from nondetectable to over 5,500 total coliforms per 100 mL, but they were all found to contain coliphage and bacteriophage. After treatment all the drinking waters were found to have residual total and free chlorine levels, to be negative for bacterial indicators, however, all contained coliphage and bacteriophage. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Redesign and Modernization of the Mexican Water Quality Monitoring Network

ABSTRACT

Mexico is a large developing country, much of which is arid and semiarid. With a population of more than 81 million, Mexico is confronted with growing water scarcity and serious pollution of much of its surface water The National Water Commission (Comision Nacional del Agua—CNA) has embarked on a major program of modernization of water management. The water quality program, now consisting of 564 surface water stations (plus 239 groundwater stations), has no strategic design, has major data gaps, is not representative of important areas, is often unreliable, does not contain data for many current issues such as organic contaminants, and suffers from out-of-date or lack of facilities. Because the existing network is not representative of the range of issues for which data are needed, network redesign began from first principles rather than as an optimization of the existing network. The new program is built around client needs, and uses four components—a primary network of some 200 stations that are designed to characterize important water bodies over the long term; a flexible secondary network that focuses on effluent regulatory issues; surveys and special studies for river basin planning and issue-specijic purposes; and a mobile emergency capability. Modernization of the water quality program also includes parallel activities focusing on training, institutional, and legal issues.     

The future sustainability of water supply in Kuwait

Abstract

The main natural source of water available in Kuwait is the brackish groundwater located in the Kuwait Group and the Dammam aquifers, where the salinity ranges from 4300 to 10200 mg/l and from 2500 to 10000 mg/l, respectively. Limited fresh groundwater resources in Al‐Rawdhatain and Umm Al‐Aish fields, which have a salinity of 359 ‐1737 mg/l, are also available. Most of the groundwater in Kuwait is used for irrigation, domestic purposes, small‐scale industries and for blending with distilled water. Because rainfall is seasonal and less than annual evaporation, the recharge of the groundwater from rainfall is negligible. The objective of this paper is to assess the different water resources in Kuwait in order to make an integrated management plan and to focus on future sustainability. Generally, in the State of Kuwait, there is increasing pressure on the natural water resources because of the exploitation of the aquifers at a rate exceeding that of both the groundwater recharge and population growth (from 1.4 million in 1980 to 2.55 million in 2003). This has lead to the observed decline in groundwater level and to the deterioration of water quality. In the early 1950s, a plan was endorsed in Kuwait to establish seawater desalination plants. By 2005, six desalination plants have been established, with a total capacity of distillation units of 1434.72 ×103 m³/d (315.6 MIGD). However, the gross maximum consumption for the year 2003 reached a value of 1440.17 ×103 m³/d (316.8 MIGD), which is higher than the total capacity of the available distillation units. Given the limitation of conventional water and the shortages of non‐conventional water, along with the increasing population, Kuwait must consider the recycling of wastewater for irrigation, industrial or any other unrestricted non‐potable purpose.     

Unraveling transboundary water security in the arid Americas

ABSTRACT

Transboundary waters are characterized by diverse and complex socio-politico-economic obstacles to effective water management. We examine five distinct cases in the arid Americas – in locations from the US–Mexico border to the Andes mountains – employing water security as a conceptual prism to unravel the multiple and varied attributes of transboundary water challenges. We describe how borders complicate water security in arid regions and explore how institutional arrangements and practices – within and across jurisdictions – respond to these challenges. We find that institutional capacity is needed on multiple levels for effective water management, and institutions must be responsive and flexible to change.     

The energy trade-offs of adapting to a water-scarce future: case study of Los Angeles

Abstract

Increasing water competition, population growth and global climate change will intensify the tension between water and energy resources in arid climates of the world, since energy costs underscore the challenges facing water security in dry regions. In few places is the tension between water and energy resources more pronounced than in Los Angeles, California. This article analyzes the city’s current water supply and estimates its future energy requirements based on water supply projections from the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. Results suggest that while increasing local water management strategies could reduce the future energy intensity of the water supply, an increased reliance on water transfers could worsen its future energy intensity.     

Water Resources Management in Saudi Arabia and Water Reuse

ABSRTACT

The potential for water reclamation and reuse in Saudi Arabia are assessed by considering relationships among the technical, social, economic, and environmental parameters. Generally, the planning process for water reuse has focused on specific technological processes, however water reuse should be analyzed as part of a total hydrologic system to ensure the efficient transfer of wastewater reuse technology

To bring relationships into better focus, the application is developed with reference to Saudi Arabia, which provides an excellent opportunity for practicing water reuse. In this region, a limited water supply is used to satisfy municipal, industrial, agricultural, recreational and other beneficial uses. The economic and social trends are toward continued industrial development and urbanization. In this setting, water recycling through reuse is becoming a more and more important means of expanding water supplies to meet the growing demands for water for virtually all social, economic and environmental uses

Saudi Arabia is an arid country with very limited water resources and about 10 million people. The country covers some 2.2 million km², four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula. It is the largest country in the world without a river or a lake, and thus it represents the ultimate in its need to use the limited water supplies wisely.