Water and Sustainable Development in Ghana

Abstract

Water is vital for the survival and development of every community or society. The health of a given community is reflected to a large extent in the water quality of the community's available water resources. In Ghana, efforts have been made since colonial days to supply both the urban and the rural communities with potable water to enhance the rapid socio-economic development of the country. It is economically viable due to the remoteness of most of the rural communities to supply them with potable water from local sources such as groundwater. The urban water supply systems are mainly based on surface water sources. With the ever-expanding population, there is a need to improve freshwater resources conservation and management in order to avoid impending shortages. To ensure the total coverage of all rural and urban communities by the year 2020, a huge capital outlay of $1 billion and 51.5 billion, respectively, is needed. Most of these funds are expected to come from the private sector, both local and foreign, with the Government making some substantial contribution.     

Positive Implications of Hand-Dug Wells in Water Resources Planning and Management in A Developing Economy Such as in Nigeria

ABSTRACT

Hand-dug wells are circular holes. about one metre (m) in diameter and 10 to 30 m in depth, dug with human labour. The wells tap water from shallow aquifers for domestic water supply, small-scale industries, and small irrigation schemes. Many hand-dug wells exist in Nigeria and in many developing countries. They are important in both urban and rural communities.

The wells are dug with hoes, shovels, pickaxes and diggers. Water and cuttings are removed from the hole using a human-powered bucket-rope-pulley arrangement. Three to four men dig the well in shifts. Well construction cost is cheap, as low-scale technology and manpower are used.

Problems with hand-dug wells include susceptibility to pollution/contamination; drastic declines in water level during the dry season; low well yields; silting-up of wells, and caving-in or collapsing of well walls, etc.

New designs are suggested to improve the efficiency and performance of this ancient technology. In Nigeria, wells should be completed in March when the water level is deepest. Well yield is improved by using slotted concrete rings to screen the aquifer. Anti-pollution devices are also proposed for better water quality. Such wells would provide more potable water to the urban and rural poor.

An improved type of slotted concrete ring has been designed for use in the screened portion of the well. Non-perforated concrete rings are used in the non-productive portions of the aquifers or above the water table, to prevent caving or collapsing of Well walls. A convex cover forms a protective rim extending beyond the circumference of the well, to prevent the entrance of surface contaminants. Water from the dug-wells is pumped through an external filtration system into an overhead storage/treatment tank using an inexpensive pumping system.

All of these designs are suggested to improve the efficiency of the wells; to provide stability to the wells and better well yield, and to lessen the incidence of pollution/contamination within the well and its surrounding environment.     

Changing Ownership Structures in the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

Abstract

The development over time of the water supply and sanitation sectors in four countries is analyzed to reveal the changing role of the private sector. In some cases, local, small-scale private water supply and sanitation systems have been able to develop progressively into large-scale official systems, which may later be privatized. In other cases, foreign capital has been more significant in the development of modern water supply and sanitation systems, particularly where privatization has occurred much earlier in the national development process. In much of the developing world, domestic water supply and sanitation is dominated not by the official water supply and sanitation companies but by independent operators who function without subsidies but with enormous variability in terms of quality of service and prices offered. However, they are constrained generally by the absence of appropriate institutional and legal frameworks, including the lack of independent regulatory authorities. There is a need, where appropriate, to continue to encourage large-scale private sector involvement in the official water supply sectors of the developing world. At the same time though, it is only by promoting policies that also further the development (where appropriate) of the independent water supply and sanitation providers that access to water supply and sanitation services can be maximized since better use of local resources in many developing countries, both local human resources and capital, provide a key means for improving access to water supply and sanitation.     

Informal water markets and community management in peri-urban Luanda,Angola

ABSTRACT

The majority of Angola’s peri-urban population still rely on informal mechanisms for water supply. This water is expensive and of poor quality, representing a significant household expenditure for the urban poor. The article uses qualitative tools and tracking of the supply chain to analyze the scope of the informal water economy in Luanda. Marketing water at the local household level involves significant trading in social capital. A financially sustainable model of community water management that builds on this neighbourhood social capital has been adopted by the government for implementation across the country.     

Groundwater Exploration and Assessment in Rural Communities of Yobe State, Northern Nigeria

The provision of adequate water supply and sanitation to the rapidly growing urban populations is increasingly becoming a problem for governments throughout the world. The continuing expansion of the numbers of people in cities who need water and sanitation services form a continuous pressure to either invest in additional production capacity or to stretch the available supplies to serve more people. Due to rapid increase in population growth in the Yobe State north of Nigeria, there is a shortage in the water supply to Damaturu city the capital of the state and surrounding villages. At the present the total water supply is about 10,000 m³/day abstracted form the shallow alluvial groundwater aquifer using 29 production wells. Due to the expected increase in water demand and the limited potentiality of shallow aquifer system, other deep aquifers were explored and investigated to evaluate their potentiality for future water demand. Vertical Electrical Sounding Method was used for the geophysical survey of the study area. Groundwater flow model was developed and calibrated against the historical information. Three wellfields were designed to provide Damaturu city and surrounding villages with the required water. The calibrated model has been used to evaluate the aquifer potentiality and the effect of future withdrawals on the deep aquifer system. It was found that the aquifer system within the study area consists of two main layers. The upper layer is the Chad formation comprises an alluvial sand and gravel with intercalation of thin sility clay layers. The second layer is Keri-Keri formation consists of sandstone formation which is not explored before. During this study the Kerri-Kerri aquifer system was investigated as an alternative source for groundwater for future demand. The study presents an integrated groundwater resources management strategy for present and future water supply for rural communities.     

NeStRes – Model for Operation of Non-Strategic Reservoirs for Irrigation in Drylands: Model Description and Application to a Semiarid Basin

Water availability in dry inhabited environments has usually been promoted by large strategic reservoirs, but small non-strategic ones, built by farmers and communities, are unable to cope with long term droughts and inappropriate for human supply. Nevertheless, small reservoirs promote water spatial distribution and play a major role for livelihood in rural areas. To fill the gap of operation methods for non-strategic reservoirs used for irrigation where water is a limiting factor, the NeStRes model was developed. The model is composed of three modules: i) hydrological: to define the reliability of water withdrawals from the reservoir; ii) agricultural: to simulate crop production based on water availability; iii) economic: to compute the possible income from irrigated agricultural crops. NeStRes was applied to 91 reservoirs of the semiarid Banabuiú River Basin – BRB, Brazil. The simulations indicated that the maximum income from the cultivation of maize is obtained when the reservoirs are intensely used, drying completely in one to two thirds of the time. Adoption of a fixed reliability level of daily water supply (54%, in the BRB) generates at least 85% of the maximum possible income for all simulated reservoirs. This model application suggests a paradigm change in the operation of small non-strategic reservoirs in drylands: to use water for crop production and save the revenue, instead of saving water, which is susceptible to evaporation. Although high reliability level is desired for human supply by strategic reservoirs, non-strategic ones can be more intensely explored to generate income from irrigated agriculture in drylands.

     

Rainwater Harvesting: An Alternative to Safe Water Supply in Nigerian Rural Communities

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is an economical small-scale technology that has the potential to augment safe water supply with least disturbance to the environment, especially in the drier regions. In Nigeria, less than half of the population has reasonable access to reliable water supply. This study in northeastern Nigeria determined the rate of water consumption and current water sources before estimating the amount of rainwater that can potentially be harvested. A survey on 200 households in four villages namely, Gayama, Akate, Sidi and Sabongari established that more than half of them rely on sources that are susceptible to drought, i.e. shallow hand-dug wells and natural water bodies, while only 3% harvest rainwater. Taraba and Gombe states where the villages are located have a mean annual rainfall of 1,064 mm and 915 mm respectively. Annual RWH potential per household was estimated to be 63.35 m³ for Taraba state and 54.47 m³ for Gombe state. The amount could meet the water demand for the village of Gayama although the other three villages would have to supplement their rainwater with other sources. There is therefore sufficient rainwater to supplement the need of the rural communities if the existing mechanism and low involvement of the villagers in RWH activities could be improved.     

Hydraulics: Queen and Servant of Water Resources

ABSTRACT

Provision of clean and safe water to all people is a major preoccupation of governments of developing countries. Owing to limited resources some countries have opted for the simple technology of shallow wells particularly for rural water supply schemes. One such country is Tanzania where shallow wells have now been in use for over 10 years.

It is shown from Tanzania's experience that shallow wells are much cheaper to construct than any of the alternative systems. Two types of shallow well are in use, namely the hand-dug and the handdrilled well with the latter preferred in high yielding aquifers. The characteristic problem of a shallow well is its relatively limited yield. Hand pumps fitted on some of the wells pose serious problems at times due to frequent breakdowns.

Results of some of the shallow well programmes have shown that investigations prior to sinking of a well are important. The villagers should be fully involved in the shallow well programmes. Countries should share their knowledge of shallow well technology. Indeed shallow wells will become increasingly important in developing countries especially during the test period of the International Water and Sanitation Decade.     

Privatization of Sanitation and Desalination Projects in Palestine

Abstract

The present problems that are related to water and sanitation in Palestine are many and varied, and the disparity between water supply and demand is growing with time due to the rapid population growth and aridity. Desalination has the potential to supply unlimited quantities of high-quality freshwater to Palestinian Communities. On the other hand, the situation of the sewerage system in the cities is extremely critical, and there are no sewerage systems in the rural areas. There is an urgent need for substantial improvements and extensions to the sewerage systems and treatment plants. The available funds for the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) and other municipalities to implement wastewater and desalination projects are limited. As a result, it is important to fully explore the use of public-private partnerships that utilize sector resources to finance such projects. The objective of this study is to understand incentives for privatization of water supply and sanitation services, with more emphasis on the households' Affordability and Willingness-to-Pay (AWTP) for improved water and sanitation services. The results show that people in Palestine bear the burden of high water supply and sanitation costs. Privatization of the water and sanitation sector will guarantee sustainable development of these sectors under limited financial resources and dependency on external funds.     

Hydrology and Hydraulics in Planning and Operation of Water Resources Systems

ABSTRACT

A number of water supply schemes in developing countries have been observed to fail to yield water at the design capacity rates well before the elapse of the design period. Such failures frustrate the efforts of a nation in its water supply development programmes.

In this paper the causes of failures o f some typical components o f a water supply scheme have been discussed citing case studies from Tanzania in East Africa. It is observed that the elements o f design and maintenance are largely responsible for the failures o f water supply schemes.

Rehabilitation of failing water supply schemes in developing countries can substantially increase the number of people served with safe and adequate water supply. Clear national policies and adequate budgetary provision are required for successful implementation of water supply projects.     

Executive Summary—Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option

An estimated 1,800 million people need improved water supplies in the fifteen years to the end of the century, if developing countries are to reach the target of full coverage. The first half of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990) has seen increases in the percentages of the rural population with access to safe water supplies, but only in Asia has the pace been quick enough to envisage a target of essentiahy full coverage by the end of the century (ten years later than the original Decade goals). In Africa, present progress rates would leave half of the rural population still without safe water in the year 2000, while in Latin America, it may be ten years into the next century before full coverage is achieved unless progress improves dramatically.

Accelerated progress is hampered by financial and technical resource constraints faced by many developing countries, and the problem is aggravated by the growing number of completed projects which are broken down and abandoned, or functioning much below capacity. Attempts to increase the pace of providing improved community water supplies have often been frustrated because the technology used has proved impossible to sustain in village conditions.

To make a lasting impact on the urgent needs, community water supply (CWS) strategies must be based on sustainable and replicable programs, and must take account of the pace at which resource constraints can be overcome. Human resource development programs take time to produce results, and institutional changes can only be accomplished gradually.     

Guyana, “Land of Waters,” Moves to Harness Hydro Potential

ABSTRACT

Heavy metal concentrations (cadmium, chromium, lead, zinc) in 46 cistern water supply systems from single-family dwellings on St. Maarten, Netherlands Antilles were considerably below US drinking water limits in most cases. Release of zinc, lead, and cadmium in the distribution system, which is not related to the corrosiveness of the cistern water, caused lead and cadmium to exceed the US Public Health Service standard for 3 (6.5%) and 1 (2.2%) of the cisterns, respectively.

The following recommendations are suggested for protecting the roof catchment drinking water supply against heavy metal contamination:

? engineer the withdrawal of cistern water to exclude the metal-laden sediment

? identify appropriate paints to be used for cistern collection systems

? install substituted materials, protective coatings, and replacement of corroded metal parts in the distribution system

? discourage the usage of metal containers (e.g., oil) for prolonged water storage

? expand cistern water quality analyses to include lead

? exercise plumbosolvency control by treating the cistern water before distribution.

These recommendations, based on the case study, also apply to other areas of the world where cisterns of similar construction are used or are being planned.     

Water and World Development

ABSTRACT

Today we face the challenges ofproviding goodfood, good air, and good water for a humanpopulation that is doubling every 40-50 years. The challenges are real and were evident enough during 1988 for Time magazine to dedicate its first 1989 issue to ?Planet of the Year….Endangered Earth“.

Great technological progress has been made over the past few years, enabling many industries and municipalities to significantly reduce airpollution and water pollution in locally defined areas. But thepictureglobally is not thatpromising Much of the available technology is costly, only affordable by the few.

This paper describes the pollutioncontrol efforts of an 1800megawatt coal-fredpowerplant in thesouthwestern United States. Over $100 million was spent to totally eliminate water dischargefrom the plant. More importantly for many readers, however, were the lessons learned in people management, water resource management, and conservation training. These resulted in significant reductions in water use and processing costs, all for a very little cost. A step-by-step procedure is given on one way to reduce water usage and reduce water pollution.     

Selection of Urban Water Supply Systems For Upgrading

ABSTRACT

The Provincial Waterworks Authority of Thailand (PWA) is considering upgrading a number of their water supply schemes to improve the conditions of existing facilities and to maximize the system efficiency with minimum capital expenditures in order to postpone major investments.

The scope of the study was to review all water supply systems managed by PWA to ascertain the need for immediate action, the technical suitability and the cost effectiveness of upgrading and to set priorities among the systems proposed.

After preliminary screening, 39 systems were selected and ranked in accordance with established selection criteria. Specific recommendations were also given for future actions on the selected systems.     

A New Approach For Locating Public Standpipes In A Water Supply Distribution Network

ABSTRACT

The majority of houses in Nigeria do not have direct connections to water supply mains. These households obtain water from public standpipes for their daily needs. Presently, the criteria which are employed to locate the standpipes are not clearly defined. A new approach using simulation techniques is proposed for finding the number and location of public standpipes, so as to improve the efficiency of water delivery services. In a case study of the Alanamu ward in Ilorin, it was found that 17 standpipes are optimal to provide a 100% service level for a population of 42,000 people. The maximum service distance would be 650 m roundtrip Economically nearly N96,000 [N = naira, N1.00 = $0.25 U.S.] in annual income foregone would be saved when 10 standpipes are added to supplement the existing 7 standpipes in the ward. The annual investment cost of N1,250 for installing and maintaining the new standpipes is small compared to the savings that would accrue to the community.     

Small-Scale Gravity Flow Water Systems in Phrae Province,Thailand

ABSTRACT

Small gravity flow water systems using small diameter PVC pipe are an increasingly popular technology in the mountains of Phrae Province, Thailand. The systems are appropriate to the needs and capabilities of the rural Thai village users; rural Thai villagers have been able to independently design, finance, and construct systems serving from 10–30 houses.

Technical details about the construction, maintenance, and finance of two systems in Ban Nam Jom Village are described. The systems include sedimentation and sand filtration tanks, and also galvanized iron reservoirs. One system, serving 22 houses, was constructed at a cost of US $904.72.

Low cost gravity flow water systems are a new technology for accessible mountain areas in countries where cheap PVCpipe is available.     

Water,Environment and Health

ABSTRACT

This paper deals with the management of the water of the Montreal Archipelago with the object of creating an overall improvement in the benefits derived by the people from their contact with this water. It deals with a multi-purpose project. The water fulfils many uses and functions: water supply, dilution of wastewater, a milieu for recreational activities, commercial navigation, hydroelectric production, environment for flora and fauna…Project “Archipel” is concerned with all of these uses. It will seek to resolve the problems and enhance the potential of each use, and attempt to establish a balance among the various uses that does not favour one use to the detriment of the others. The “Archipel” project is also a joint effort. The valance in the use of the water must reflect the needs of communities and interested groups, taking into account the resources available. It is therefore important that municipalities, interested groups and the public be involved in the feasibility study. It is equally important that the authorities concerned participate together in defining the project's orientations and in making commitments. The aim of this paper is to present the feasibility process of the project.     

The rural–urban equity nexus of Metro Manila’s water system

ABSTRACT

This article examines equity concerns and inherent conflicts related to rural–urban water supply allocation and use, with focus on Metro Manila. Going beyond the much-discussed difficulty farmers experience from an allocation policy prioritizing urban water requirements, it shows that inequity in raw water allocation is linked to, and further exacerbated by, inequities in urban domestic water provision. Moreover, it highlights the need for broader equity reviews, using the concept of the rural–urban water equity nexus to draw attention to key equity considerations across space and scale that otherwise might remain invisible.     

The water footprint challenge for water resources management in Chilean arid zones

ABSTRACT

The water footprint concept is difficult to apply to water-shortage conditions because of private management and variability in the water balance. Chilean water law stipulates that water allocation depends on water rights and private organization criteria, according to the basin water supply and not necessarily crop irrigation demand, crop yield or irrigation technology. This paper explores the resultant complications.