Specific heat of Teflon,Torlon 4203 and Torlon 4301 in the range of 30–400 mK

The specific heat of amorphous polymers, Teflon, Torlon 4203 and Torlon 4301, has been measured in the range of 30–400 mK using thermal relaxation calorimetric technique. The data is consistent with the tunneling state models used to explain the observed unusual low temperature specific heat of amorphous polymers. Below 100 mK, the specific heat of Torlon 4301 is ∼3 times higher than that of Torlon 4203. Teflon has the lowest specific heat, ∼10 times lower than that of Torlon 4301.     

Thermal conductivity of Tecamax® SRP from millikelvin temperatures to room temperature

Tecamax® SRP (self-reinforced polyphenylene) is a new commercially available amorphous polymer which is suitable for use at cryogenic temperatures. It has a high tensile strength (210 MPa at room temperature), resulting from the molecular structure of the polymer rather than by the addition of reinforcing materials. We have measured the thermal conductivity between 60 mK and 280 K. We find that the conductivity below 10 K is similar to, but lower than, most amorphous materials, and the material offers a good combination of low conductivity at low temperatures and high tensile strength. Our results suggest that the material may in fact have a small crystalline component, which may be a partial explanation for the low conductivity. Above 10 K, the temperature dependence of the conductivity is different from most amorphous materials. We are unaware of previous measurements of the thermal conductivity of this material, even at room temperature.     

As-cast microstructures and behavior at high temperature of chromium-rich cobalt-based alloys containing hafnium carbides

Hafnium is often used to improve the high temperature oxidation resistance of superalloys but not to form carbides for strengthen them against creep. In this work hafnium was added in cobalt-based alloys for verifying that HfC can be obtained in cobalt-based alloys and for characterizing their behavior at a very temperature. Three Co–25Cr–0.25 and 0.50C alloys containing 3.7 and 7.4 Hf to promote HfC carbides, and four Co–25Cr– 0 to 1C alloys for comparison (all contents in wt.%), were cast and exposed at 1200 °C for 50 h in synthetic air. The HfC carbides formed instead chromium carbides during solidification, in eutectic with matrix and as dispersed compact particles. During the stage at 1200 °C the HfC carbides did not significantly evolve, even near the oxidation front despite oxidation early become very fast and generalized. At the same time the chromium carbides present in the Co–Cr–C alloys totally disappeared in the same conditions. Such HfC-alloys potentially bring efficient and sustainable mechanical strengthening at high temperature, but their hot oxidation resistance must be significantly improved.     

The effect of some heat treatment parameters on the dimensional stability of AISI D2

The tool steel AISI D2 is usually processed by vacuum hardening followed by multiple tempering cycles. It has been suggested that a deep cold treatment in between the hardening and tempering processes could reduce processing time and improve the final properties and dimensional stability. Hardened blocks were then subjected to various combinations of single and multiple tempering steps (520 and 540 °C) and deep cold treatments (−90, −120 and −150 °C). The greatest dimensional stability was achieved by deep cold treatments at the lowest temperature used and was independent of the deep cold treatment time.     

Recommendations for accurate heat capacity measurements using a Quantum Design physical property measurement system

A commercial instrument for determination of heat capacities of solids from ca. 400 K to 0.4 K, the physical property measurement system from Quantum Design, has been used to determine the heat capacities of a standard samples (sapphire [single crystal] and copper). We extend previous tests of the PPMS in three important ways: to temperatures as low as 0.4 K; to samples with poor thermal conductivity; to compare uncertainty with accuracy. We find that the accuracy of heat capacity determinations can be within 1% for 5 K < T < 300 K and 5% for 0.7 K < T < 5 K. Careful attention should be paid to the relative uncertainty for each data point, as determined from multiple measurements. While we have found that it is possible in some circumstances to obtain excellent results by measurement of samples that contribute more than ca. 1/3 to the total heat capacity, there is no “ideal” sample mass and sample geometry also is an important consideration. In fact, our studies of pressed pellets of zirconium tungstate, a poor thermal conductor, show that several samples of different masses should be determined for the highest degree of certainty.     

Low temperature radiative properties of materials used in cryogenics

Radiative heat transfer between two parallel surfaces, a sample surface and a black surface, was measured. One of the surfaces was cooled with liquid helium to about 5 K and the other one was step by step heated to temperatures ranging between 30 and 140 K. As a result, the total hemispherical absorptivity and emissivity of the sample surface were determined in dependence on the temperature of the heat radiation. Aluminium samples were made of Al sheet, Al foil and aluminized mylar. Further measurements were performed on sheets of aluminium alloy, Cu, zinc brass and stainless steel. The influence of different types of sample treatment such as chemical and mechanical surface finishing and material annealing on the radiative properties is presented.     

Specific heat, electrical resistivity and thermoelectric power of YbNi4Si

The studies of the specific heat, electrical resistivity and thermoelectric power of YbNi₄Si are reported. These studies are supported by magnetic susceptibility and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) measurements. YbNi₄Si does not order magnetically down to 4 K. Nearly in the whole temperature range studied the magnetic susceptibility follows a Curie law with μ_eff = 4.15 μ_B/f.u. This effective magnetic moment is close to the value expected for the 4f¹³ configuration (4.54 μ_B). The Yb²⁺ and Yb³⁺ peaks observed by XPS in the valence band region confirm the domination of the Yb³⁺ valence state. Based on the specific heat measurements, the electronic specific heat coefficient γ = 25 mJ/mol/K² and the Debye temperature θ_D = 320 K were derived. A quadratic dependence of electrical resistivity at low temperatures has been observed. The Kadowaki-Woods ratio has been discussed. The thermoelectric power has been analyzed in the framework of the two band model.     

Performance measurements of a 7 mm-diameter hydrogen heat pipe

A gravity assisted heat pipe with 7-mm diameter has been developed and tested to cool a liquid hydrogen target for extracted beam experiments at COSY. The liquid flowing down from the condenser surface is separated from the vapor flowing up by a thin wall 3 mm diameter plastic tube located concentrically inside the heat pipe. The heat pipe was tested at different inclination angles with respect to the horizontal plane. The heat pipe showed good operating characteristics because of the low radiation heat load from the surroundings, low heat capacity due to the small mass, higher sensitivity to heat loads (to overcome the heat load before the complete vaporization of the liquid in the target cell) due to the higher vapor speed inside the heat pipe which transfers the heat load to the condenser.     

Predicting the thermal conductivity of aluminium alloys in the cryogenic to room temperature range

Aluminium alloys are being used increasingly in cryogenic systems. However, cryogenic thermal conductivity measurements have been made on only a few of the many types in general use. This paper describes a method of predicting the thermal conductivity of any aluminium alloy between the superconducting transition temperature (approximately 1 K) and room temperature, based on a measurement of the thermal conductivity or electrical resistivity at a single temperature. Where predictions are based on low temperature measurements (approximately 4 K and below), the accuracy is generally better than 10%. Useful predictions can also be made from room temperature measurements for most alloys, but with reduced accuracy. This method permits aluminium alloys to be used in situations where the thermal conductivity is important without having to make (or find) direct measurements over the entire temperature range of interest. There is therefore greater scope to choose alloys based on mechanical properties and availability, rather than on whether cryogenic thermal conductivity measurements have been made. Recommended thermal conductivity values are presented for aluminium 6082 (based on a new measurement), and for 1000 series, and types 2014, 2024, 2219, 3003, 5052, 5083, 5086, 5154, 6061, 6063, 6082, 7039 and 7075 (based on low temperature measurements in the literature).     

Percolation and the resistive transition of the critical temperature Tc of Nb3Sn

The relationship between the distribution of the critical temperature, the percolation function, and the resistive transition of the critical temperature is explored for polycrystalline Nb₃Sn. In the neighborhood of the critical temperature, Nb₃Sn is assumed to be a random mixture of superconducting and normal grains. Percolation concepts are applied to a study of the resistivity. A general analysis is made showing that the onset and shape of the resistive transition for composite conductors are determined by the percolation function and the distribution of the critical temperature. An approximate form of the percolation function is determined based on a linear FEM analysis. Example resistive transitions are calculated for an assumed normal distribution of the critical temperature. An argument is presented that relates grain orientation and strain dependence in Nb₃Sn. It is noted that a dependence of the distribution of T_c with strain, in addition to the usual shift in T_c with strain, would be the result of a strain dependence that is a function of grain orientation. The analysis shows the extent to which the slope of the resistive transition is a measure of the distribution of the critical temperature, and therefore a measure of the grain orientation strain sensitivity. Finally, a method is described to determine the percolation function experimentally.     

Visualization for heat and mass transport phenomena in supercritical artificial air

A laser holography interferometer is applied to investigate heat and mass transport phenomena around the pseudo-critical line of supercritical artificial air with a composition of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. In a previous study, we successfully observed the heat transport phenomenon, the piston effect, around the pseudo-critical line of nitrogen. The same experimental set-up is applied to the supercritical artificial air, which is a compressible binary mixture fluid. We attempt to suppress the generation of natural convection, and successfully observe the heat and mass transport phenomena, which are the soret effect and the piston effect, respectively. Here, we discuss these effects observed in the supercritical artificial air.     

Invariant temperature and field strain functions for Nb3Sn composite superconductors

The observed strain dependence of Nb₃Sn over an extended range of applied strain requires revision of the functions used previously to represent that strain dependence. The concept and various definitions of the strain function for the upper critical field and the critical temperature are reviewed. An invariant strain function for the critical temperature is derived from the strain energy potential of the general invariant strain analysis. The invariant strain function is applied to a study of uniaxial longitudinal applied strain on wire and tape conductors. Uniaxial forms of the general strain function are derived, and parameter values of the strain function are determined from a fit of the uniaxial forms to published uniaxial strain data for the critical temperature. The concept of precompression is examined in the context of the strain function. The invariant strain function, as an analytic function, is compared with numerical calculations of the general invariant strain analysis for longitudinal and transverse applied strain. The correspondence between the strain dependence of the critical temperature and the upper critical field is discussed, and a form of the invariant strain function for the upper critical field is presented.     

A very light and thin liquid hydrogen/deuterium heat pipe target for COSY experiments

A liquid hydrogen/deuterium heat pipe (HP) target is used at the COSY external experiments TOF, GEM and MOMO. The target liquid is produced at a cooled condenser and guided through a central tube assisted by gravitation into the target cell. An aluminum condenser is used instead of copper, which requires less material, improves conductivities and provides shorter cooling down time. Residual condenser temperature fluctuations in the order of ≈0.4 K are reduced by using thermal resistances between the cooling machine and the condenser of the heat pipe combined with a controlled heating power. A new design with only a 7-mm-diameter HP has been developed. The diameter of the condenser part remains at 16 mm to provide enough condensation area. The small amount of material ensures short cooling down times. A cold gas deuterium HP target has been designed and developed which allows protons with energy ?1 MeV to be measured. A 7-mm-diameter HP is used to fill a cooling jacket around the D₂ gas cell with LH₂. The D₂ gas is stabilized at 200 mbar to allow for thin windows. Its density is increased by factor 15 compared to room temperature.     

Measurement of the thermal expansion of metal and FRPs

Thermal expansion is an important parameter for characterization of different binding forces, lattice dynamics, band and crystal structure of any solids. Many investigators have focused their attention to study this property theoretically and experimentally at different temperatures. It is one of the important properties of metals and its alloys, which helps to calculate the thermal stress. This parameter is also used to determine the compatibility of an insulator as load bearing materials. Different experimental setups have been developed to study thermal expansions of the materials using different techniques namely capacitance method, interferometric principle, LASER, optical, quartz tube etc. This paper reviews most of the experimental setups available to measure thermal expansion of metals, alloys, polymers and fibre-reinforced plastics at temperature ranging from 1 to 1100 K.     

Recommended values for the thermal conductivity of aluminium of different purities in the cryogenic to room temperature range, and a comparison with copper

The thermal conductivity of pure aluminium at cryogenic temperatures varies by many orders of magnitude depending on purity and treatment, and there is little information in the literature on the likely values to be obtained for samples of a given purity. A compilation of measurements from the literature has been assembled and used to provide recommended ranges of values for aluminium of different purities (4N, 5N and 6N) in the normal (non superconducting) state. The number of direct thermal conductivity measurements is too limited to be used alone. Electrical resistivity measurements have thus also been used by converting to thermal conductivity using the Wiedemann-Franz law, which is shown to be valid. Since low temperature measurements can easily be extrapolated to higher temperatures, the results cover the range from 1.2 K (the superconducting transition temperature) to room temperature. Values for 5N purity copper have also been examined in a similar manner, to allow a comparison between the two materials. The main application of these results is in the design of cryogenic thermal links; a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of both materials for this use is given. The use of silver is also investigated briefly. Trends in the behaviour of the conductivity of aluminium in the superconducting state (to temperatures as low as 50 mK) are also discussed.     

Effect of oxyfluorinated multi-walled carbon nanotube additives on positive temperature coefficient/negative temperature coefficient behavior in high-density polyethylene polymeric switches

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were embedded into high-density polyethylene (HDPE) to improve the electrical properties of HDPE polymeric switches. The MWCNT surfaces were modified by oxyfluorination to improve their positive temperature coefficient (PTC) and negative temperature coefficient (NTC) behaviors in HDPE polymeric switches. HDPE polymeric switches exhibit poor electron mobility between MWCNT particles when the number of oxygen functional groups is increased by oxyfluorination. Thus, the PTC intensity of HDPE polymeric switches was increased by the destruction of the electrical conductivity network. The oxyfluorination of MWCNTs also leads to weak NTC behavior in the MWCNT-filled HDPE polymeric switches. This result is attributed to the reduction of the mutual attraction between the MWCNT particles at the melting temperature of HDPE, which results from a decrease in the surface free energy of the C-F bond in MWCNT particles.     

Magnetoresistance up to 50 T of highly strengthened Cu-Ag conductors for pulsed high field magnets

The resistance of cold worked Cu-x wt.%Ag alloys (x = 7 and x = 24) is measured in dependence of magnetic field and temperature. The magnetoresistance (MR) in the field range 0 T ? B ? 50 T is positive and increases with magnetic field. If the magnetic field B is applied perpendicular to the transport current I, the magnetoresistance increases in the temperature range from 77 K to 300 K. The highest value of 14% for the MR is measured at 77 K and 50 T. For I‖B it was found that the MR is independent of the temperature in the investigated range from 77 K to 199 K. The MR is attributed to the microstructure of the alloys and appears to be independent of the Ag content of the alloys under investigation.     

The effect of pre-straining on the mechanical behaviour of self-piercing riveted aluminium alloy sheets

Self-piercing riveting as an alternative joining method to spot-welding has attracted considerable interest from the automotive industry and has been widely used in aluminium intensive vehicles. Pressing and stamping are important processes in automotive production and result in additional straining on the vehicle body sheet material. It is therefore important to have knowledge of the effect of sheet pre-straining on the quality of the self-piercing riveted joints and on the mechanical behaviour of the riveted aluminium alloy sheets. This paper reports the influence of sheet pre-straining on the static and fatigue behaviour of self-piercing riveted aluminium alloy sheet. Wrought aluminium alloy sheet, NG5754 with a nominal thickness value of 2 mm was used to obtain pre-strained NG5754 sheets with pre-straining levels of 3%, 5% and 10%. Pairs of pre-strained NG5754 sheets were joined to create single-riveted lap joints which subsequently underwent lap-shear and fatigue testing. Microscopic inspection showed that the joint quality was satisfactory despite the increasing sheet straining levels. The results showed that by increasing the pre-straining level up to 10%, the shear and fatigue strength also increased. The rate of increase of the static and fatigue strength differed as the pre-straining levels varied.     

A method for accurate thermal conductivity measurements of small samples at ultra-low temperatures

A specific experimental arrangement has been developed for low temperature measurements of thermal conductivity of small samples such as single crystals of magnetic insulators with a typical length of a few millimeters. A frame of low conductance, serving as a mechanical support for ruthenium thermometers recording the temperature gradient on a sample, has been tested in the temperature range from 150 mK to 5 K by using commercial 99.95% purity polycrystalline non-annealed molybdenum. The applicability of the setup is discussed for the samples with the thermal conductance in the range 10⁻⁵-10⁻³ W/K.     

Analysis of specific heat anomalies of high-Tc superconductors based on a two-carrier high-Tc superconductor model

We investigate the specific heat properties of a high-T _c superconductor model, the two-carrier model which includes an electron-phonon interaction driven by lattice defects such as oxygen deficiencies in the otherwise conventional BCS superconductor. The normal state is identified as a two-carrier model system which is composed of two groups of charge carriers: the normal and the renormalized Bloch carriers. An enhanced normal-state electronic specific heat is obtained, and there is good agreement between theoretical predictions about the specific heat anomalies at and aboveT _c and experimental data.