Gender differences in above-level EXPLORE scores of gifted third through sixth graders.

We examined gender differences in EXPLORE scores when taken by gifted 3rd through 6th graders. Boys performed better on Mathematics and Science Reasoning, and girls performed better on Reading, but effect sizes were negligible. In English, boys scored higher in third grade, and girls scored higher in subsequent grades. More boys than girls scored at or above a cutoff of 14 on Mathematics, and more girls than boys scored at this level on English and Reading. Using a cutoff of 25, the male advantage in Mathematics and Science Reasoning increased, but there was no gender difference in English or Reading. These findings parallel those from studies of gifted seventh and eighth graders: Test performance of boys in Mathematics was somewhat stronger than that of girls, regardless of how performance was measured, but results favoring girls in verbal areas were weaker and less consistent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's achievement strategies and test performance: The role of time pressure, evaluation anxiety, and sex.

155 3rd and 4th graders were divided into low test-anxious (LTA), middle test-anxious (MTA), or high test-anxious (HTA) groups on the basis of scores on the Test Anxiety Scale for Children. Ss were then tested in small groups on age-appropriate arithmetic problems either under time pressure typical of current achievement testing or under no time pressure. HTA boys displayed poor performance under time pressure compared to their less anxious peers yet improved significantly when time pressure was removed, with HTA and MTA boys matching the performance of LTA boys. LTA boys and HTA girls performed better under time pressure. Ss' rate–accuracy patterns are examined, and several maladaptive strategies are suggested. HTA and MTA boys tended to perform quickly but inaccurately, whereas MTA and HTA girls tended to perform slowly but with only medium accuracy. Nearly all LTA Ss showed high accuracy and a moderate performance rate. Suggestions are made for diversifying test procedures to take into account different children's motivational dispositions and test-taking strategies, as well as for teaching children appropriate strategies for coping with the demands of different tests. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's solution processes in elementary arithmetic problems: Analysis and improvement.

Using error analysis and individual interviews, the problem-solving actions of 176 1st and 2nd graders were analyzed in Exp I. Shortcomings of Ss' knowledge and solution strategies were discovered. It seemed that these shortcomings could be overcome by instruction; therefore, a teaching experiment (Exp II; 52 2nd graders) was undertaken wherein instruction was given for 2 wks to an experimental class, while in a control group, the usual arithmetic program was taught. Experimental instruction related mainly to 3 topics: the equality sign, the part–whole relation, and verification of the outcome of an arithmetic operation. Results show that the experimental teaching program led to a decrease in Ss' thinking errors on elementary addition and subtraction problems. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An investigation of different instructional methods on number-concept understanding and arithmetic learning.

Made a 3-yr investigation of 3 different methods of teaching arithmetic to 1st-3rd grade children. The methods were: traditional, cuisenaire, and sets and numbers. No reliable differences in arithmetic achievement could be detected between Ss taught by the different methods. Also, no differences in number concept understanding were found, when assessed by a Piagetian-type of standardized test. Consistent differences between classes taught by the same method were found, but were attributed tentatively to differences in teaching ability. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fluency, accuracy, and gender predict developmental trajectories of arithmetic strategies.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether there are different growth trajectories of arithmetic strategies and whether these trajectories result in different achievement outcomes. Longitudinal data were collected on 240 students who began the study as 2nd graders. In the 1st year of the study, the 2nd-grade students were assessed on fluency and accuracy on simple arithmetic problems. During the fall of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grades, they were assessed on strategies for complex (multiple-digit) arithmetic. They were assessed on mathematics competency at the end of 4th grade. Growth mixture modeling was used to assess developmental trajectories in arithmetic strategies; the roles of fluency, accuracy, and gender in the development of latent class; and the impact of latent class on 4th-grade mathematics competency. The data indicated 2 latent classes of growth trajectories for correct cognitive strategy use and for attempted manipulative strategy use. Three latent classes were needed to explain the development of attempted cognitive strategy use. Fluency appeared to have the most significant impact on the growth rate, whereas accuracy and gender tended to influence the initial level of performance. Not all children transitioned away from manipulatives easily. A small latent class of children slightly increased their use of manipulatives over the course of the study, with the girls in this group being less likely than boys to abandon manipulatives. Finally, what appears to be the normal developmental trajectory for strategies was not found to serve many children well in regard to later mathematics achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations and achievement among third-, sixth-, and ninth-grade Black and White males and females.

Hypothesized that (a) boys in 3rd, 6th, and 9th grade would have higher expectations than girls, but only 9th-grade boys would have higher achievement; (b) achievement would increase with grade; (c) Whites would have higher expectations and achievement than Blacks; and (d) realism would increase with grade level. 112 Black and White 3rd, 6th, and 9th graders recorded their expectations and then attempted to perform tasks of math, mazes, or geometric drawings. Contrary to predictions and most previous studies, no significant sex differences were found. Whites achieved higher scores on mazes and drawings than did Blacks. The expectations of Blacks rose with grade level, regardless of concomitant achievements; but expectations of Whites did not. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of single and multiple strategy instruction on third-grade students' mathematical problem solving.

The purposes of this study were to assess the differential effects of a single strategy (schema-based instruction; SBI) versus multiple strategies (general strategy instruction, GSI) in promoting mathematical problem solving and mathematics achievement as well as to examine the influence of word problem-solving instruction on the development of computational skills. Eighty-eight 3rd graders and their teachers were assigned randomly to conditions (SBI and GSI). Students were pre- and posttested on mathematical problem-solving and computation tests and were posttested on the Pennsylvania System of School Assessment Mathematics test, a criterion-referenced test that measures student attainment of academic standards. Results revealed SBI to be more effective than GSI in enhancing students' mathematical word problem-solving skills at posttest and maintenance. Further, results indicate that the SBI groups' performance exceeded that of the GSI group on the Pennsylvania System of School Assessment measure. On the computation test, both groups made gains over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender stereotypes and social inferences: A developmental study.

Investigated changes between childhood and adulthood in reliance on gender stereotypes when making inferences about another person. 36 children from each of 3 age groups (kindergarten [mean age 5 yrs 8 mo], 3rd grade [mean age 8 yrs 9 mo], and 6th grade [mean age 11 yrs 8 mo]) and 36 college students were told that a boy or a girl had chosen activities consistent or inconsistent with gender stereotypes. Ss were asked to predict the actor's future behavior, rate the actor on several traits, and estimate the actor's popularity with peers. College students predicted that the actor's future behavior would be approximately as consistent (or inconsistent) with gender stereotypes as their past behavior. College students' ratings of the actor's traits and their judgments about the popularity of boys were also influenced by the actor's past behavior. Sixth graders showed a similar pattern of social inferences, but the effects of the actor's past behavior were weaker than at college age. By contrast, 3rd graders predicted that the actor's future behavior would be stereotypical, even if his or her past behavior was not. Past behavior had some effect on 3rd graders' trait ratings but not on their popularity judgments. At kindergarten, only predictions for a girl's future behavior were affected by past-behavior information. The age differences are discussed in the context of current models of the development and functioning of gender stereotypes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confrontation with aggressive peers at school: Students' reluctance to seek help from the teacher .

Asking for assistance from a teacher is generally viewed by elementary school students as a way of avoiding rather than resolving peer conflict. However, there are situations when it is appropriate and perhaps necessary to seek help. This study investigated such situations. Vignettes that portrayed aggressive peer conflict at school were presented to 128 3rd and 4th graders, who were asked what they would do and why. Students' self-perceptions of peer relations also were measured. At Grade 3, boys and girls were equally likely to go to the teacher for help, whereas at Grade 4, girls were more likely than boys to do so. At Grade 4, girls showed greater interest than boys in resolving conflict and "getting things back to normal." At Grade 3, students interested in revenge tended to go to the teacher. At both grades, boys were more concerned than girls that help seeking might lead to hassles with the teacher or reprisals from classmates. Boys who perceived themselves as popular and girls who perceived themselves as unpopular were relatively likely to seek help. Relations between help seeking and children's grade level, gender, and self-perceptions are discussed in terms of goal and strategy components in a social-information-processing model of conflict resolution. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and young children's expectations for performance in arithmetic.

Tracked the progress of approximately 1,100 children from the beginning of 1st grade to the end of 3rd grade. Ss included Whites at a suburban school and Blacks and Whites whose background was urban and lower class. Ss', their mothers', and their peers' expectations for their grades in reading, arithmetic, and conduct were assessed each semester. Ss' actual grades and achievement test scores were also obtained. Data suggest that the schooling experience in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd grades differed according to gender, even though the 2 sexes sat together in the same classrooms. Although boys' arithmetic marks and/or general aptitude did not exceed girls', data indicate that boys developed higher expectations for their own performance in arithmetic than did girls, apparently in response to differential expectations held by their parents. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The nature of teachers' pedagogical content beliefs matters for students' achievement gains: Quasi-experimental evidence from elementary mathematics.

In a longitudinal study of 496 students in 27 self-contained German elementary school classrooms, performance in mathematical word problems and arithmetic tasks was measured at the end of Grades 2 and 3. A questionnaire was used to assess the degree to which teachers' pedagogical content beliefs in elementary mathematics reflect a cognitive constructivist orientation, rather than an associationist or direct-transmission view of learning and teaching. Our findings show that a cognitive constructivist orientation was associated with larger achievement gains in mathematical word problems. Moreover, teachers with a direct transmission view were not more successful than teachers with a cognitive constructivist orientation in fostering students' computational proficiency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning what's taught: Sex differences in instruction.

Research indicates that boys perform better on mathematics tests and girls perform better on reading tests. An investigation of why boys' and girls' performance differs was made by coding 33 teacher interactions with 2nd grade students during reading and mathematics instruction. Teachers made more academic contacts with girls in reading and with boys in math; teachers spent relatively more cognitive time with girls in reading and boys in math; teachers made consistently more managerial contacts with boys than girls; and, although there were no differences in initial abilities, sex differences were found in end-of-year achievement in reading. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affect, aggression, and altruism.

Investigated the effects of thinking happy, sad, or angry thoughts on both aggression and altruism in 39 male and 34 female 3rd graders in a 4 * 2 design with 3 affect manipulations and a control group. Girls shared more balloons than boys, but there were not treatment differences in altruism. Boys were more aggressive than girls, although the sexes did not differ in the control condition. Instead, boys in all 3 affect conditions were more aggressive than in the control condition, whereas girls in all 3 affect conditions were less aggressive than girls in the control condition. Results are consistent with a view that any kind of emotional arousal may serve to increase a dominant aggressive response in boys and lead to inhibition of aggression in girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cognitive correlates of third-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems.

The purpose of this study was to examine the cognitive correlates of 3rd-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Third graders (N = 312) were measured on language, nonverbal problem solving, concept formation, processing speed, long-term memory, working memory, phonological decoding, and sight word efficiency as well as on arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Teacher ratings of inattentive behavior also were collected. Path analysis indicated that arithmetic was linked to algorithmic computation and to arithmetic word problems and that inattentive behavior independently predicted all 3 aspects of mathematics performance. Other independent predictors of arithmetic were phonological decoding and processing speed. Other independent predictors of arithmetic word problems were nonverbal problem solving, concept formation, sight word efficiency, and language. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

But what about smart girls? Adolescent self-esteem and sex role perceptions as a function of academic achievement.

Examined adolescent self-esteem and sex-role perceptions as a function of academic achievement with 71 male and 69 female 7th graders divided into 3 groups (below average, average, and above average level of academic competence). Ss responded to a self-esteem inventory under the following 2 sets of instructions: (a) a standard set and (b) a set in which Ss were asked to respond as they thought a member of the same age and grade but of the opposite sex would respond. Results of the standard instruction investigation reveal a significant but moderate difference in self-esteem levels in favor of the boys. Reported levels of self-esteem also rose very significantly and commensurately with higher academic achievement for both sexes. Under opposite-sex instructions, girls attributed significantly but moderately higher levels of self-esteem to boys, and boys attributed significantly lower levels of self-esteem to girls. Girls in the above average group, however, rated boys significantly below themselves. Findings are discussed in terms of attribution theory and the possibility that academically competent girls possess more masculine or androgynous than feminine characteristics. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Distributive justice development and social class: A replication.

28 kindergartners and 28 3rd graders, equally divided between lower- and middle-class and between boys and girls, were given the Distributive Justice Scale, a vocabulary test, and sociometric peer ratings. Results show that regardless of grade, the lower-class Ss lagged behind the middle-class Ss in distributive justice development even when verbal ability was controlled. Findings replicate those of a previous study drawn from the same population (R. Enright et al; see record 1981-07767-001). Both studies show statistically equivalent scores. The peer ratings showed that in both kindergarten and 3rd grade, lower-class Ss were most often named as having negative socioeconomic traits. Implications for social class distributive justice are discussed. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on computer-assisted instruction.

Investigated the impacts of computer-assisted cooperative, competitive, and individualistic instruction on student achievement and attitudes. 71 8th graders were randomly assigned to conditions stratified for sex and ability. 24 Ss (13 boys and 11 girls) were assigned to the cooperative condition, 22 Ss (11 boys and 11 girls) to the competitive condition, and 25 Ss (14 boys and 11 girls) to the individualistic condition. In all conditions Ss completed the same computer-assisted instructional unit. Results indicate that computer-assisted cooperative instruction promotes greater quantity and quality of daily achievement; more successful problem solving; and higher performance on factual recognition, application, and problem-solving test items than does computer-assisted competitive or individualistic learning. The girls' attitudes, compared with the boys', were adversely affected within the competitive condition. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching counselor trainees how to respond consistently to client negative affect.

Discusses the problem of teaching counselor trainees to respond consistently to client negative affect. A means of measuring the consistency of affective responding is described. 30 counselor trainees at the prepracticum level were randomly divided into 3 groups. The 1st 2 groups were taught how to respond consistently to client negative affect, and the 3rd group served as a control. Modeling and didactic teaching procedures were employed with the 1st 2 groups. When all the Ss counseled an angry role-playing client, the Ss in the 1st 2 groups responded more consistently to the negative affect than those in the control group. There was no difference in the consistency of responding between the modeling and didactic groups. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Apparent sex differences in cooperation–competition: A function of individualism.

Of the studies investigating sex differences among Anglo-American children, some have found boys more competitive than girls, whereas others have found the opposite or no differences. Analysis of previous cooperation–competition (C-C) studies, however, reveals that in many studies either the cooperative or the competitive alternative has been confounded with individualism (i.e., offers own-gain maximization) and that the sex differences in observed C-C vary systematically as a function of individualism. To test the hypothesis that sex differences in individualism can account for the apparently contradictory finding regarding sex differences in C-C, 80 3rd–5th graders (42 girls, 38 boys) made 24 choices on 4 choice cards that systematically varied with respect to individualism. As predicted, girls were more individualistic than boys and appeared more cooperative in situations in which individualism and cooperation were confounded, but girls were more competitive than boys when individualism and competition were confounded. Results point to the conclusion that the apparent contradictions found in studies of sex differences in C-C among children are due to the confounding effects of individualism. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structure of abilities in math-precocious young children: Gender similarities and differences.

For this study of the organization of cognitive abilities and gender differences in young children advanced in mathematical reasoning, parents identified 778 preschoolers and kindergartners. After screening with 2 arithmetic subtests of standard intelligence tests, 310 high scorers (55% boys) were given 15 additional measures. Mean performance of these high scorers on all standardized measures was 1 to 2 standard deviations above the mean of the norming samples. Boys scored higher on 8 of 11 quantitative measures, 0 of 3 verbal measures, and l of 3 spatial measures, including quantitative and spatial working memory span. Three factors (quantitative, verbal, and spatial) were modeled using confirmatory factor analysis; patterns of relationships were similar for older and younger groups and for girls and boys. Spatial and quantitative factors were highly correlated; the verbal factor correlated weakly with the others but showed a stronger relationship with the spatial factor for boys than girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)