The effectiveness of an air cleaner in controlling droplet/aerosol particle dispersion emitted from a patient's mouth in the indoor environment of dental clinics

Dental healthcare workers (DHCWs) are at high risk of occupational exposure to droplets and aerosol particles emitted from patients'' mouths during treatment. We evaluated the effectiveness of an air cleaner in reducing droplet and aerosol contamination by positioning the device in four different locations in an actual dental clinic. We applied computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods to solve the governing equations of airflow, energy and dispersion of different-sized airborne droplets/aerosol particles. In a dental clinic, we measured the supply air velocity and temperature of the ventilation system, the airflow rate and the particle removal efficiency of the air cleaner to determine the boundary conditions for the CFD simulations. Our results indicate that use of an air cleaner in a dental clinic may be an effective method for reducing DHCWs'' exposure to airborne droplets and aerosol particles. Further, we found that the probability of droplet/aerosol particle removal and the direction of airflow from the cleaner are both important control measures for droplet and aerosol contamination in a dental clinic. Thus, the distance between the air cleaner and droplet/aerosol particle source as well as the relative location of the air cleaner to both the source and the DHCW are important considerations for reducing DHCWs'' exposure to droplets/aerosol particles emitted from the patient''s mouth during treatments.     

Aerosol Synthesis of Inhalation Particles via a Droplet-to-Particle Method

ABSTRACT

Inhalation powders with consistent particle properties, including particle size, size distribution, and shape were produced with an aerosol synthesis method. Compared to conventional spray drying, the aerosol method provides better control of the thermal history and residence time of each droplet and product particle due to the laminar flow in the heated zone of the reactor where the droplet drying and particle formation take place. A corticosteroid, beclomethasone dipropionate, generally used for asthma treatment was chosen as a representative material to demonstrate the process. Spherical particles were produced with a droplet-to-particle method from an ethanolic precursor solution. The droplets produced with an ultrasonic nebulizer were carried to a heated zone of the reactor at 50–150°C where the solvent was evaporated and dry particles formed. The mass mean diameter of the particles were well within the respirable size range (approximately 2 μm). The geometric standard deviation (GSD) of produced particles was approximately 2. The particle surface structure varied from smooth to rough depending on the degree of particle crystallinity and was affected by the thermal history of the particle. Amorphous particles with smooth surface were most likely obtained due to the rapid evaporation of the solvent from the droplet combined with the slow diffusion of the beclomethasone dipropionate molecule. The amorphous particles were transformed slowly to crystalline particles in the open atmosphere. In addition, the particle surface structure changed from smooth to rough during storage. The process was accelerated by thermal post-annealing. However, additional heating also increased particle sintering. By optimizing the reactor parameters, and thus increasing the molecular diffusion, stable, crystalline particles were produced at 150°C.     

Aerosol Synthesis of Inhalation Particles via a Droplet-to-Particle Method

Inhalation powders with consistent particle properties, including particle size, size distribution, and shape were produced with an aerosol synthesis method. Compared to conventional spray drying, the aerosol method provides better control of the thermal history and residence time of each droplet and product particle due to the laminar flow in the heated zone of the reactor where the droplet drying and particle formation take place. A corticosteroid, beclomethasone dipropionate, generally used for asthma treatment was chosen as a representative material to demonstrate the process. Spherical particles were produced with a droplet-to-particle method from an ethanolic precursor solution. The droplets produced with an ultrasonic nebulizer were carried to a heated zone of the reactor at 50-150°C where the solvent was evaporated and dry particles formed. The mass mean diameter of the particles were well within the respirable size range (approximately 2 μm). The geometric standard deviation (GSD) of produced particles was approximately 2. The particle surface structure varied from smooth to rough depending on the degree of particle crystallinity and was affected by the thermal history of the particle. Amorphous particles with smooth surface were most likely obtained due to the rapid evaporation of the solvent from the droplet combined with the slow diffusion of the beclomethasone dipropionate molecule. The amorphous particles were transformed slowly to crystalline particles in the open atmosphere. In addition, the particle surface structure changed from smooth to rough during storage. The process was accelerated by thermal post-annealing. However, additional heating also increased particle sintering. By optimizing the reactor parameters, and thus increasing the molecular diffusion, stable, crystalline particles were produced at 150°C.     

Integrating biomass, sulphate and sea-salt aerosol responses into a microphysical chemical parcel model: implications for climate studies

Aerosols are known to influence significantly the radiative budget of the Earth. Although the direct effect (whereby aerosols scatter and absorb solar and thermal infrared radiation) has a large perturbing influence on the radiation budget, the indirect effect (whereby aerosols modify the microphysical and hence the radiative properties and amounts of clouds) poses a greater challenge to climate modellers. This is because aerosols undergo chemical and physical changes while in the atmosphere, notably within clouds, and are removed largely by precipitation. The way in which aerosols are processed by clouds depends on the type, abundance and the mixing state of the aerosols concerned. A parametrization with sulphate and sea-salt aerosol has been successfully integrated within the Hadley Centre general circulation model (GCM). The results of this combined parametrization indicate a significantly reduced role, compared with previous estimates, for sulphate aerosol in cloud droplet nucleation and, consequently, in indirect radiative forcing. However, in this bicomponent system, the cloud droplet number concentration, N(d) (a crucial parameter that is used in GCMs for radiative transfer calculations), is a smoothly varying function of the sulphate aerosol loading. Apart from sea-salt and sulphate aerosol particles, biomass aerosol particles are also present widely in the troposphere. We find that biomass smoke can significantly perturb the activation and growth of both sulphate and sea-salt particles. For a fixed salt loading, N(d) increases linearly with modest increases in sulphate and smoke masses, but significant nonlinearities are observed at higher non-sea-salt mass loadings. This non-intuitive N(d) variation poses a fresh challenge to climate modellers.     

Growth of the surface area of separated liquid fragments during high-temperature fragmentation of an inhomogeneous liquid drop

We have experimentally studied the formation of a droplet cloud during intense heating and subsequent explosive fragmentation of an inhomogeneous liquid drop. The experiments were performed with water drops containing graphite particles, which were heated in a flow of combustion products at a temperature varied from 600 to 1100 K. Three regimes of fragmentation of the inhomogeneous liquid drops have been observed, which are characterized by different total areas of liquid phase surface in aerosol clouds. Dependence of these regimes on the water/inclusion volume ratio and the amount of supplied heat has been determined.     

Rapid generation of protein aerosols and nanoparticles via surface acoustic wave atomization

We describe the fabrication of a surface acoustic wave (SAW) atomizer and show its ability to generate monodisperse aerosols and particles for drug delivery applications. In particular, we demonstrate the generation of insulin liquid aerosols for pulmonary delivery and solid protein nanoparticles for transdermal and gastrointestinal delivery routes using 20?MHz SAW devices. Insulin droplets around 3?μm were obtained, matching the optimum range for maximizing absorption in the alveolar region. A new approach is provided to explain these atomized droplet diameters by returning to fundamental physical analysis and considering viscous-capillary and inertial-capillary force balance rather than employing modifications to the Kelvin equation under the assumption of parametric forcing that has been extended to these frequencies in past investigations. In addition, we consider possible mechanisms by which the droplet ejections take place with the aid of high-speed flow visualization. Finally, we show that nanoscale protein particles (50-100?nm in diameter) were obtained through an evaporative process of the initial aerosol, the final size of which could be controlled merely by modifying the initial protein concentration. These results illustrate the feasibility of using SAW as a novel method for rapidly producing particles and droplets with a controlled and narrow size distribution.     

Crystallography of metallic aerosol precipitates

In a previous paper it was concluded from microscopical evidence that the radius of a basal raft nucleated on a freezing droplet of Zn or Cd expands to a fixed fraction of the droplet radius before thickening into a grain. Further studies on polycrystalline spheres from condensation aerosols, together with observations by other investigators working with much larger, sessile drops, confirm that the raft remains quite thin while the radius is expanding. Additional surface features developed by epitaxial growth from the vapour on monocrystalline aerosol spheres show that in the following stage, in which the raft thickens but its upper surface no longer expands, the growth front propagates into the melt by the build-up of layers parallel to c. Evidence of a growth helix is found opposite the basal flat. Its formation is attributed to growth on a screw dislocation generated by the stress that accumulates at the perimeter of the expanding raft. The onset of rapid helical thickening coincides with termination of raft expansion. Differences in evaporation behaviour of particles are considered to depend on whether the dislocation remains in the solidified droplet or is expelled by thermal stresses. Glide of the same dislocations may be involved in the slip previously observed in polycrystals.     

Features of the Diffusiophoresis of Aerosol Droplets with Allowance for the Influence of the Evaporation (Sticking) Coefficient and Internal Flows

A new theory of diffusiophoresis of large volatile spherical aerosol droplets, which is a further development of the previous investigations, has been formed. Account has been taken of the influence of the evaporation coefficient of the droplet liquid, the surfacetension coefficient variable along the droplet surface, and internal flows in the droplet on the diffusiophoresis velocity. The formulas obtained enable one to directly find the velocity of motion of single large aerosol droplets in a binary gas mixture inhomogeneous in concentration.     

Real‐Time Monitoring of Colloidal Crystallization in Electrostatically‐Levitated Drops

Colloidal crystallization is analogous to the crystallization in bulk atomic systems in various aspects, which has been explored as a model system. However, a real‐time probing of the phenomenon still remains challenging. Here, a levitation system for a study of colloidal crystallization is demonstrated. Colloidal particles in a levitated droplet are gradually concentrated by isotropic evaporation of water from the surface of the droplet, resulting in crystallization. The structural change of the colloidal array during crystallization is investigated by simultaneously measuring the volume and reflectance spectra of the droplet. The crystal nucleates from the surface of the droplet at which the volume fraction exceeds the threshold and then the growth proceeds. The crystal growth behavior depends on the initial concentrations of colloidal particles and salts which determine the overall direction of crystal growth and interparticle spacing, respectively. The results show that a levitating bulk droplet has a great potential as a tool for in situ investigation of colloidal crystallization.     

Comparison between an unipolar corona charger and a polonium-based bipolar neutralizer for the analysis of nanosized particles and biopolymers

In this work we present results on the charging efficiency of nanoparticles by means of a corona based unipolar charging unit. This device was designed to replace a Po210 bipolar charger unit in a commercial electrospray aerosol generator (TSI Mod 3480). The charging efficiency has been investigated for negative and positive charged particles of various chemical composition in the size range between 5 and 18 nm. The corona current has been found to be the most influential operation parameter on the charging efficiency. With a positive electrospray droplet charge and a negatively-biased corona needle, a rapidly decreasing yield of singly positively charged aerosol particles with increasing corona current was found. An increasing yield of negatively charged particles was observed with increasing current of the corona process. Providing appropriate corona settings nanoparticles with charge levels similar to these obtained with a Po210 charger were found. At optimal corona settings the yield of singly charged particles was found to be two to four times higher for negative and positive particles compared to bipolar charging. This gain in the charging efficiency increases directly the sensitivity of analysis and enhances all measurement and manipulation processes of airborne nanoparticles for which electrical charging is required.     

Optical patternation: a technique for three-dimensional aerosol diagnostics

A novel technique based on optical patternation is described for three-dimensional diagnostic studies of aerosols used in analytical spectroscopies. The aerosol is illuminated with a thin laser light sheet to capture images of the fluorescence and Lorenz-Mie light-scattering signals from the aerosol field with a charge-coupled detector. These measurements allow for the rapid and nonintrusive elucidation of two-dimensional spray structures, planar mass distributions, and spatial droplet size distributions. The ratio of the fluorescence image to the Lorenz-Mie image is then utilized to construct a spatially resolved map of the volume-to-surface area mean of the aerosol (Sauter mean diameter). Three-dimensional maps of spray structure, mass distribution, and droplet size distribution are obtained for the entire aerosol field by image stacking. The technique is applied to the measurement of the droplet size over the aerosol field at distances of 5-30 mm from the nebulizer tip where droplet sizes ranged from 6 to 12 microm for a direct injection high efficiency nebulizer used in inductively coupled plasma spectrometries.     

大气气溶胶对混合相对流云影响的模拟研究

利用二维面对称分档云模式,讨论了气溶胶类型及浓度对混合相对流云及其降水的影响。结果表明:海洋性气溶胶谱分布在一定程度上更有利于降水的形成,随着气溶胶浓度的增加,尤其是在污染大陆性云中,暖云和冷云降水量均大幅减少。海洋性云中的大粒子和较高的过饱和度,加速了暖雨的碰撞过程和冰粒子的凝华增长;初始气溶胶浓度的增加最显著的效应是云滴数浓度和云水含量增加,云滴有效半径减小,云滴的冷却蒸发抑制对流的发展。     

PENETRATION OF POLYDISPERSE AEROSOLS THROUGH SCREEN DIFFUSION BATTERY

As an alternative data reduction scheme for diffusion battery measurements, penetration of polydisperse aerosol particles in a screen type diffusion battery has been calculated employing Brownian diffusion and interception as the applicable deposition mechanisms. The influences of the mean particle size and the geometric standard deviation of the aerosol on penetrations of the total particle number, radius, surface area, and the total particle volume have been examined. It is quantitatively shown that depending upon the type of aerosol instrument in use as a particle counting means and depending upon the size distribution of the measured aerosols, penetration characteristics can become markedly different. For a highly dispersed aerosol having a small mean particle size, the total radius, the surface area and the total volume of aerosol particles are shown to penetrate a diffusion battery more slowly in that order than the total number of particles. However, when the mean size of the aerosol increases, such a monotomic increase in penetration becomes no longer valid due to increasing importance of the interceptional deposition. Experimental measurements have been performed to demonstrate applications of the calculated results.     

First integrals of equations of motion of a droplet in the presence of mass transfer to the carrier medium

Analysis is performed of first integrals in the limiting Stokes and Newtonian modes of motion of a droplet for two cases, namely, that of the droplet moving in its own vapor in the presence of phase transitions and that of the droplet moving in dusty gas without phase transformations but in view of the capture of dust particles. Expressions are found for the lengths over which the processes of condensation, complete evaporation of droplet, and deposition of particles occur. Comparison is made of the lengths and times of complete evaporation of droplet in the Stokes and Newtonian modes of droplet motion. Asymptotic formulas are obtained for these quantities, which correspond to low and high superheating of vapor, as well as formulas for the limiting diameters of droplet in the cases of condensation of vapor or capture of particles.     

Aerosol assisted depositions of polymers using an atomiser delivery system

The hydrophobicity, robustness and anti-microbial properties of Sylgard 184 polymer films deposited via AACVD were optimised by using aerosol droplets from an atomiser delivery system, polymer coating substrates and the swell encapsulation of methylene blue. By using an atomiser deposition system (average droplet size 0.35 microm) rather than a misting aerosol system (45 microm) lead to a surface with smaller surface features, which improved hydrophobicity (water contact angle 165 degrees) in addition to increasing the films transparency from ca 10 to 65%. Pre-treating the substrates with the same Sylgard 184 elastomer lead to a highly consistent surface hydrophobicity and an increase in average water contact angle measured (169 degrees). This paper shows the first example of dye incorporation in a CVD derived polymer film-these films have potential as antimicrobial surfaces.     

Aerosol photoemission for quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in simple mixtures adsorbed on carbonaceous and sodium chloride aerosols

The photoelectric aerosol sensor was applied as a tool for the in situ and on-line detection of surface-enriched polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Carbon aerosol and sodium chloride aerosol were coated stepwise with up to four different PAHs or simultaneously with three different PAHs (internally mixed aerosol). The measured photoelectric signal of the internally mixed aerosol was compared with the expected signal, which was calculated from the previous calibration of the sensor. An additivity of the individual contributions of the absorbed PAHs on the sum signal was found. Experiments with photoelectrically inactive paraffin adsorbed on photoelectrically active aerosol particles have demonstrated that only the surface composition contributes to the photoemission signal.     

The inclusion of the effect of the evaporation coefficient on the rate of variation of droplet radius

The paper deals with the investigation of the effect of the evaporation (condensation) coefficient of droplet substance on the rate of unsteady variation of the radius of a spherical aerosol droplet in the cases of direct and indirect inclusion of this coefficient. It is found in both cases that the effect of evaporation coefficient is most significant at the initial instant of unsteady-state process of evaporation and of condensation growth of the droplet. At this instant, the size of spherical droplet has hardly any impact on the rate of variation of its radius. As the unsteady-state process continues, the effect of the evaporation coefficient on the rate of variation of the droplet radius depends significantly on the droplet size. The larger the droplet under consideration, the lower the effect of the evaporation coefficient on the rate of variation of its radius. The rates of variation, calculated for the same values of the evaporation coefficient but for different ways of inclusion of this coefficient, differ less for larger aerosol droplets. These methods of inclusion of the evaporation coefficient are considered for the process of slow evaporation of a droplet.     

Investigation of the utility of laser-secondary neutral mass spectrometry for the detection of polyaromatic hydrocarbons in individual atmospheric aerosol particles

The distribution of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ambient aerosol particles is of importance to both human health and climate forcing. Although time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) has proven useful for studying the distribution of organic compounds in individual aerosol particles, it is difficult to detect PAHs at relevant concentrations in individual aerosol particles because of their low ion yield. In this study, we explore the potential of using laser secondary neutral mass spectrometry (Laser-SNMS) to study three PAHs: pyrene, anthracene, and naphthalene. Because of the high volatility of PAHs, a cryostage was required for the analysis to prevent sublimation of the molecules into the vacuum chamber. We studied two laser systems, a 157 nm excimer laser, which is capable of single-photon ionization of the PAHs, and a 193 nm laser, which requires multiphoton ionization. Under optimized conditions for laser power density and primary ion pulse length, 193 nm postionization resulted in a 2-50-fold increase in ion yield over ToF-SIMS. Using the 157 nm laser, the yield was increased by more than 3 orders of magnitude for all 3 PAHs studied. The single-photon postionization process proved superior in terms of both yield enhancement and reduced fragmentation. By using the optimized 157 nm laser system and a cryostage, we were able to detect PAHs on the surface of 2 μm diameter ambient aerosol particles.     

Formation of detonation diamond layers on silicon by the aerosol method

An aerosol method for deposition of nanometer-thick layers of detonation diamonds has been developed. Application of a suspension of deagglomerated diamond particles onto substrates from an aerosol provides deposition of small-size drops, with the ultrasonic spraying of the suspension precluding formation of secondary agglomerates of nanodiamond particles in the course of sample drying. The layers are promising for high-precision studies of the structure and chemical composition of the surface of isolated nanodiamond particles.     

DISPLACEMENT OF PARTICLES DEPOSITED ON SOLID SURFACES BY A MOVING GAS-LIQUID-SOLID INTERFACE

Deposited small particles change their position and can build aggregates on surfaces when wetted/dewetted. The size and form of these aggregates depend on the amount of water condensed, the form of the particles and the contact angles. Experiments with glass spheres and quartz particles on three different surfaces with water as wetting liquid were carried out. Results of the wetting/dewetting experiments are shown and discussed. A model is presented to estimate the magnitude of involved forces and the displacement of the particles taking into account contact angles, amount of condensed water, and size of particles. The model explains, why particles, as observed, tend to gather near the edge of a droplet at small surface contact angles and near the droplet center at high surface contact angles.