Heat Flow during the Autogenous GTA Welding of Pipes

A theoretical and experimental study of heat flow during the welding of pipes was carried out. The theoretical part of the study involves the development of two finite difference computer models: one for describing steady state, 3-dimensional heat flow during seam welding, the other for describing unsteady state, 3-dimensional heat flow during girth welding. The experimental part of the study, on the other hand, includes: measurement of the thermal response of the pipe with a high speed data acquisition system, determination of the arc efficiency with a calorimeter, and examination of the fusion boundary of the resultant weld. The experimental results were compared with the calculated ones, and the agreement was excellent in the case of seam welding and reasonably good in the case of girth welding. Both the computer models and experiments confirmed that, under a constant heat input and welding speed, the size of the fusion zone remains unchanged in seam welding but continues to increase in girth welding of pipes of small diameters. It is expected that the unsteady state model developed can be used to provide optimum conditions for girth welding, so that uniform weld beads can be obtained and weld defects such as lack of fusion and sagging can be avoided.     

Simulation of Heat Flow During the Welding of Thin Plates

Based on the finite difference method and the enthalpy model of Shamsundar, a computer model was developed to describe the steady state, two-dimensional heat flow during the welding of thin plates. In order to allow accurate computations of the weld pool configuration, the size of the mushy zone and the temperature distribution near the heat source, a grid mesh of variable spacings was used. The heat of fusion, the size and distribution of the heat source, the temperature dependence of thermal properties, the heat conduction in the welding direction and the surface heat loss during welding were considered. The model was first checked with Rosenthal’s analytical solution of welding heat flow using pure aluminum for examples. Experimental results of 6061 aluminum, including the width of the fusion zone and the thermal cycles at positions in both the fusion and the heat affected zones, were then compared with the calculated results of the heat flow model. The agreement was very good. Finally, in order to demonstrate systematically the quantitative effect of welding parameters such as the heat input, the welding speed and the preheating of the workpiece, a series of computations were made based upon 6061 aluminum.     

Computational modeling of stationary gastungsten-arc weld pools and comparison to stainless steel 304 experimental results

A systematic study was carried out to verify the predictions of a transient multidimensional computational model by comparing the numerical results with the results of an experimental study. The welding parameters were chosen such that the predictions of the model could be correlated with the results of an earlier experimental investigation of the weld pool surface temperatures during spot gas-tungsten-arc (GTA) welding of Type 304 stainless steel (SS). This study represents the first time that such a comprehensive attempt has been made to experimentally verify the predictions of a numerical study of weld pool fluid flow and heat flow. The computational model considers buoyancy and electromagnetic and surface tension forces in the solution of convective heat transfer in the weld pool. In addition, the model treats the weld pool surface as a truly deformable surface. Theoretical predictions of the weld pool surface temperature distributions, the cross-sectional weld pool size and shape, and the weld pool surface topology were compared with corresponding experimental measurements. Comparison of the theoretically predicted and the experimentally obtained surface temperature profiles indicated agreement within ±8 pct for the best theoretical models. The predicted surface profiles were found to agree within ±20 pct on dome height and ±8 pct on weld pool diameter for the best theoretical models. The predicted weld cross-sectional profiles were overlaid on macrographs of the actual weld cross sections, and they were found to agree very well for the best theoretical models.     

海洋平台用EH36厚钢板焊接接头的组织性能分析

按照EN 10225-2009附录E标准要求,采用50 kJ/cm大热输入埋弧焊工艺焊接厚为100 mm海洋平台用EH36钢板,测试分析了焊态及焊后热处理态焊接接头的组织与性能。结果表明,无论焊态还是焊后热处理态,EH36厚钢板焊接接头的硬度HV10≤280,抗拉强度≥510 MPa,-40℃冲击功均值≥50 J,表面组织以粗大的板条状贝氏体＋少量粒状贝氏体为主,心部组织以细小的铁素体＋珠光体为主,表明济钢开发的EH36厚钢板满足海洋平台的焊接生产要求。焊接接头表面与心部熔合线形状及传热状态的差异,是导致表面HAZ晶粒比心部粗大、因而表面韧性低于心部的主要原因。     

Welding,Glazing, and Heat Treating —A dimensional analysis of heat flow

Through a rigorous mathematic demonstration and the application of general enthalpy equations, the key dimensionless variables that characterize heat flow during welding, glazing, and heat treating of a workpiece were systematically presented. Both the 2-dimensional and the 3-dimensional heat flows due to a moving heat source were considered. The 2-dimensional heat flow during the welding of thin plates with a stationary, instantaneous heat source was also analyzed. While the primary dimensionless variables such as the dimensionless temperature, the Fourier number, and the dimensionless distances were sufficient to describe the heat flow during heat treating, additional primary dimensionless variables such as the dimensionless heat input, the Stephan number, the dimensionless thermal conductivity, and the dimensionless specific heat were found necessary to define the heat flow during welding and glazing. The validity of such a dimensional analysis was verified by existing analytical solutions. Due to the additional heat flow variables such as the size of the heat source, the size of the workpiece, the surface heat loss, and the freezing range of alloy systems, secondary dimensionless variables including the dimensionless size of the heat source, the dimensionless width and thickness of the workpiece, the Biot number, and the dimensionless liquidus temperature were presented and discussed. The results of heat flow calculations involving both the surface heat treating of a substrate with a square laser beam and the gas tungsten-arc full-penetration welding of 5052 and 2014 aluminum alloys were presented using the dimensionless variables introduced in the present study.     

K-TIG焊接中厚板的工艺窗口改进

针对穿孔深熔氩弧焊(K-TIG)工艺焊接8 mm厚Q235低碳钢板时焊接过程不稳定、焊接工艺窗口小等突出问题,首次提出在焊接工件背部铺加保护焊剂的方法改善焊接过程。采用对接焊的方式,在不开坡口、焊接过程不添加焊丝的情况下,达到单面焊双面成形的效果。最终成功的采用430～480 A范围内的直流电流对8 mm厚的Q235低碳钢进行了焊接,将焊接电流窗口扩大到50 A同时也显著的提高了焊接过程的稳定性。同时,在扩大焊接电流窗口之后,系统研究了不同焊接电流下焊接接头的组织性能。研究结果表明:在不同焊接电流下得到的焊接接头中,组织分布以及力学性能分布呈现出相同的状态。焊缝区的组织均由铁素体+珠光体+魏氏组织组成;熔合区由魏氏组织组成;热影响区由铁素体+少量的珠光体组成;此外随着焊接电流的增加,焊接接头背部的熔宽有略微增加;在焊接接头中,熔合区处硬度值最高,其次是焊缝区,之后是热影响区,母材的硬度值最低;焊接接头最终的拉伸断裂位置是在热影响区处。      

A Fundamental Study of Laser Transformation Hardening

A theoretical and experimental study of heat flow and solid-state phase transformations during the laser surface hardening of 1018 steel was conducted. In the theoretical part of the study, a three-dimensional heat flow model was developed using the finite difference method. The surface heat loss, the temperature dependence of the surface absorptivity, and the temperature dependence of thermal properties were considered. This heat flow model was verified with the analytical solution of Jaeger and was used to provide general heat flow information, based on the assumptions of no surface heat loss, constant surface absorptivity, and constant thermal properties. The validity of each of these three assumptions was evaluated with the help of this heat flow model. In the experimental part of the study, on the other hand, a continuous-wave CO₂ laser of 15 kW capacity was used in conjunction with a beam integrator to surface harden 1018 steel plates. The beam power and the travel speed of the workpiece were varied, and the onset of surface melting was determined. The configurations of the heat-affected zone observed were compared with those calculated using the heat flow model. The microstructure of the heat-affected zone was explained with the help of the calculated peak temperature, heating, and cooling rates.     

Influence of the Tool Shoulder Contact Conditions on the Material Flow During Friction Stir Welding

Friction stir welding (FSWing) is a solid-state joining process of special interest in joining alloys that are traditionally difficult to fusion weld. In order to optimize the process, various numeric modeling approaches have been pursued. Of importance to furthering modeling efforts is a better understanding of the contact conditions between the workpiece and the weld tool. Both theoretical and experimental studies indicate the contact conditions between the workpiece and weld tool are unknown, possibly varying during the FSW process. To provide insight into the contact conditions, this study characterizes the material flow in the FSW nugget by embedding a lead (Pb) wire that melted at the FSWing temperature of aluminum alloy 2195. The Pb trace provided evidence of changes in material flow characteristics which were attributed to changes in the contact conditions between the weld tool and workpiece, as driven by temperature, as the tool travels the length of a weld seam.     

Heat transfer during Nd: Yag pulsed laser welding and its effect on solidification structure of austenitic stainless steels

Theoretical and experimental investigations were carried out to determine the effect of process parameters on weld metal microstructures of austenitic stainless steels during pulsed laser welding. Laser welds made on four austenitic stainless steels at different power levels and scanning speeds were considered. A transient heat transfer model that takes into account fluid flow in the weld pool was employed to simulate thermal cycles and cooling rates experienced by the material under various welding conditions. The weld metal thermal cycles and cooling rates are related to features of the solidification structure. For the conditions investigated, the observed fusion zone structure ranged from duplex austenite (γ)+ferrite (δ) to fully austenitic or fully ferritic. Unlike welding with a continuous wave laser, pulsed laser welding results in thermal cycling from multiple melting and solidification cycles in the fusion zone, causing significant post-solidification solid-state transformation to occur. There was microstructural evidence of significant recrystallization in the fusion zone structure that can be explained on the basis of the thermal cycles. The present investigation clearly demonstrated the potential of the computational model to provide detailed information regarding the heat transfer conditions experienced during welding.     

Welding parameters and the grain structure of weld metal — A thermodynamic consideration

The grain structure of the weld metal can significantly affect its resistance to solidification cracking during welding and its mechanical properties after welding. An experimental study was conducted to investigate the effect of two basic welding parameters,i.e., the heat input and the welding speed, on the grain structure of aluminum-alloy welds. Gas-tungsten arc welding was performed under various heat inputs and welding speeds, with thermal measurements in the weld pool being carried out during welding and the amounts and nuclei of equiaxed grains in the resultant welds being examined using optical and electron microscopy. The experimentally measuredG/R ratios and the clearly revealed heterogeneous nuclei together demonstrated the thermodynamic effect of the heat input and welding speed on the weld metal grain structure.     

Weld metal composition change during conduction mode laser welding of aluminum alloy 5182

Selective vaporization of volatile elements during laser welding of automotive aluminum alloys affects weld metal composition and properties. An experimental and theoretical study was carried out to seek a quantitative understanding of the influences of various welding variables on vaporization and composition change during conduction mode laser welding of aluminum alloy 5182. A comprehensive model for the calculation of vaporization rate and weld metal composition change was developed based on the principles of transport phenomena, kinetics, and thermodynamics. The calculations showed that the vaporization was concentrated in a small high-temperature region under the laser beam where the local vapor pressure exceeded the ambient pressure. The convective vapor flux driven by the pressure gradient was much higher than the diffusive vapor flux driven by the concentration gradient. The computed weld pool geometry, vaporization rates, and composition changes for different welding conditions agreed well with the corresponding experimental data. The good agreement demonstrates that the comprehensive model can serve as a basis for the quantitative understanding of the influences of various welding variables on the heat transfer, fluid flow, and vaporization occurring during conduction mode laser welding of automotive aluminum alloys.     

Three-dimensional transient model for arc welding process

A direct computer simulation technique, discrete element analysis (DEA), was utilized in the development of a transient multidimensional (2-D and 3-D) mathematical model for investi-gating coupled conduction and convection heat transfer problems associated with stationary and moving arc welding processes. The mathematical formulation considers buoyancy, electro-magnetic, and surface tension driving forces in the solution of the overall heat transfer conditions in the specimen. Furthermore, the formulation of the model allows realistic consideration of the geometrical variations in the workpiece. The model treats the -weld pool surface as a truly deformable free surface, allowing for the prediction of the weld surface deformations such as the “weld crown.≓ A marked element formulation was employed to monitor the transient de-velopment of the weld pool as determined by the latent heat considerations and the calculated velocities in the weld pool. The model was utilized to simulate the heat and fluid flows in the weld pool that occur during stationary (spot) and moving (linear) gas tungsten-arc welding. Also, the present analysis considers a simple rectangular specimen and a geometrically complex specimen to demonstrate the capability of the model to simulate realistic 3-D arc welding prob-lems. The results of the present investigation clearly demonstrate the significant influence of the heat and fluid flows and the specimen geometry on the development of the weld. Comparison of the predicted and the experimentally observed fusion zone and heat-affected zone (HAZ) geometries indicate good agreement.     

Numerical Investigation of Residual Stress in Thick Titanium Alloy Plate Joined with Electron Beam Welding

A finite-element (FE) simulation process integrating three dimensional (3D) with two-dimensional (2D) models is introduced to investigate the residual stress of a thick plate with 50-mm thickness welded by an electron beam. A combined heat source is developed by superimposing a conical volume heat source and a uniform surface heat source to simulate the temperature field of the 2D model with a fine mesh, and then the optimal heat source parameters are employed by the elongated heat source for the 3D simulation without trial simulations. The welding residual stress also is investigated with emphasis on the through-thickness stress for the thick plate. Results show that the agreement between simulation and experiment is good with a reasonable degree of accuracy in respect to the residual stress on the top surface and the weld profile. The through-thickness residual stress of the thick plate induced by electron beam welding is distinctly different from that of the arc welding presented in the references.     

On the calculation of the free surface temperature of gas-tungsten-arc weld pools from first principles: Part I. modeling the welding arc

A mathematical formulation has been developed and computed results are presented describing the temperature profiles in gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) arcs and, hence, the net heat flux from the welding arc to the weld pool. The formulation consists of the statement of Maxwell's equations, coupled to the Navier-Stokes equations and the differential thermal energy balance equation. The theoretical predictions for the heat flux to the workpiece are in good agreement with experimental measurements — for long arcs. The results of this work provide a fundamental basis for predicting the behavior of arc welding systems from first principles.     

Optimization of Welding Parameters,Influence of Activating Flux and Investigation on the Mechanical and Metallurgical Properties of Activated TIG Weldments of AISI 316 L Stainless Steel

This research investigation articulates the joining of AISI 316 L austenitic stainless steel plates of thickness 5 mm by activated tungsten inert gas (A-TIG) welding. Prior to the welding, the optimization of process parameters and the selection of suitable flux have been carried out to join the plates in a single pass welding. The experimental results show that the complete weld penetration can be achieved by using activating flux. The microscopic study divulges the presence of delta ferrite, sigma phase and various forms of austenite in the weld zone. Fischer Feritscope result indicates that the delta ferrite content in the weld is higher (7.8 FN) than the base metal (1.3 FN) which results in superior mechanical properties of the weld. Field Emission-Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) fractography reveals that the failure of weldments occurs in ductile mode. 180° bend test study reveals the good ductility of the joint.     

Effect of Alclad Layer on Material Flow and Defect Formation in Friction-Stir-Welded 2024 Aluminum Alloy

The effect of the Alclad layer on material flow and defect formation during friction-stir welding (FSW) of 6.5-mm-thick 2024Al-T351 alloy plates was investigated. To characterize the material flow during FSW, different cross sections of the keyhole and “stop-action weld” were made for metallographic observations. It was found that the top Alclad assembled at the shoulder/workpiece interface, thereby weakening the material flow in the shoulder-driven zone and favoring the formation of void defect at high traveling speeds. The bottom Alclad layer extended into the weld at excess material flow state, which could be avoided at balanced material flow state. A conceptual model of material flow was proposed to describe the formation of the weld. It was indicated that a perfect FSW joint of Alclad 2024Al alloy without defect could be obtained at an optimum FSW condition.     

Microstructural and Mechanical Characterization of as Weld and Aged Conditions of AA2219 Aluminium Alloy by Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Process

In this article, Welding of AA2219 aluminium alloy using Gas tungsten arc welding process (GTAW) and evaluation of metallurgical, mechanical and corrosion properties of the joints are discussed. The weld samples were subjected to ageing process at the temperature range of 195°C for a period of 5 h to improve the properties. AA2219 aluminium plates of thickness of 25 mm were welded using gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process in double V butt joint configuration. The input parameters considered in this work are welding current, voltage and welding speed. Tensile strength and hardness were measured as performance characteristics. The variation in the properties were justified with the help of microstructures. The same procedures were repeated for post weld heat treated samples and a comparison was made between as weld condition and age treated conditions. The post weld heat samples had better tensile strength and hardness values on comparing with the as weld samples. Fracture surface obtained from the tensile tested specimen revealed ductile mode of failure.     

Dimensionless maps for heat flow analyses in fusion welding

In the present investigation, attempts have been made to bridge the various analytical heat flow models (i.e. the thick plate, the medium thick plate, and the thin plate solutions) by establishing dimensionless maps for a general outline of the quasi-stationary temperature distribution pertaining to a moving heat source on plates of different thickness and thermal properties. The accuracy of the maps has been tested against extensive experimental data, as obtained from in situ thermocouple measurements and numerical analysis of a large number of stringer bead welds. It is shown that the thermal programme within the HAZ (heat affected zone) of such weldments can be adequately predicted from the medium thick plate solution for a wide range in operational conditions (including aluminium and steel welding).     

Effect of Welding Speed on Gas Metal Arc Weld Pool in Commercially Pure Aluminum: Theoretically and Experimentally

Temperature and velocity fields, and weld pool geometry during gas metal arc welding (GMAW) of commercially pure aluminum were predicted by solving equations of conservation of mass, energy and momentum in a three-dimensional transient model. Influence of welding speed was studied. In order to validate the model, welding experiments were conducted under the similar conditions. The calculated geometry of the weld pool were in good agreement with the corresponding experimental results. It was found that an increase in the welding speed results in a decrease peak temperature and maximum velocity in the weld pool, weld pool dimensions and width of the heat-affected zone (HAZ). Dimensionless analyses were employed to understand the importance of heat transfer by convection and the roles of various driving forces in the weld pool. According to dimensionless analyses droplet driving force strongly affected fluid flow in the weld pool.     

Material flow patterns and cavity model in friction-stir welding of aluminum alloys

Friction-stir welding (FSW) of 3-mm-thick plates of 6061 Al and LF6 Al was conducted and the materials’ flow patterns in the weld nugget along three perpendicular planes were analyzed. The onion structure viewed on any cross section normal to the travel direction is independent of weld position. The weld morphology was examined along its length by considering planes of different depths parallel to the surface. These showed semicircle streaks whose shapes depended on the depth of the observation plane. It is determined that the weld nugget is composed of a series of identical half ellipsoid regions. A tentative simplified cavity model is presented to explain the mass flow pattern and formation of defects in the weld nugget. This model is based on the assumption that only the metal between the pin surface and the last maximum circle created by the pin rotation is in a plasticized state. From this model, it is shown that the location and size of the cavity formed during the rotation of the pin changes cyclically and it is related to the position of the pin’s center. The holes or slots left in the weld nugget center or near the advancing side are directly related to the size of the cavity. The welding parameters or weld pitch affects the volume of the cavity, and consequently influence the weld defects. A large weld pitch will cause holes to be formed in the weld nugget because of the large cavity. The flow patterns, which show that the plasticized material flows from both advancing and retreating sides to the weld center behind the pin, can be easily explained with this cavity model.