Influence of degree of interlock on confined strength of jointed hard rock masses

The strength of jointed rock mass is strongly controlled by the degree of interlock between its constituent rock blocks. The degree of interlock constrains the kinematic freedom of individual rock blocks to rotate and slide along the block forming joints. The Hoek–Brown (HB) failure criterion and the geological strength index (GSI) were developed based on experiences from mine slopes and tunneling projects in moderately to poorly interlocked jointed rock masses. It has since then been demonstrated that the approach to estimate the HB strength parameters based on the GSI strength scaling equations (called the ‘GSI strength equations’) tends to underestimate the confined peak strength of highly interlocked jointed rock masses (i.e. GSI > 65), where the rock mass is often non-persistently jointed, and the intact rock blocks are strong and brittle. The estimation of the confined strength of such rock masses is relevant when designing mine pillars and abutments at great depths, where the confining pressure is high enough to prevent block rotation and free sliding on block boundaries. In this article, a grain-based distinct element modeling approach is used to simulate jointed rock masses of various degrees of interlock and to investigate the influences of block shape, joint persistence and joint surface condition on the confined peak strengths. The focus is on non-persistently jointed and blocky (persistently jointed) rock masses, consisting of hard and homogeneous rock blocks devoid of any strength degrading defects such as veins. The results from this investigation confirm that the GSI strength equations underestimate the confined strength of highly interlocked and non-persistently jointed rock masses. Moreover, the GSI strength equations are found to be valid to estimate the confined strength of persistently jointed rock masses with smooth and non-dilatant joint surfaces.     

Strength of massive to moderately jointed hard rock masses

The Hoek-Brown(HB) failure criterion and the geological strength index(GSI) were developed for the estimation of rock mass strength in jointed and blocky ground where rock mass failure is dominated by sliding along open joints and rotation of rock blocks. In massive, veined and moderately jointed rock in which rock blocks cannot form without failure of intact rock, the approach to obtain HB parameters must be modified. Typical situations when these modifications are required include the design of pillars,excavation and cavern stability, strainburst potential assessment, and tunnel support in deep underground conditions(around s1/s ci 0.15, where s1 is the major principal compressive stress and s ciis the unconfined compressive strength of the homogeneous rock) in hard brittle rocks with GSI ! 65. In this article, the strength of massive to moderately jointed hard rock masses is investigated, and an approach is presented to estimate the rock mass strength envelope using laboratory data from uniaxial and triaxial compressive strength tests without reliance on the HB-GSI equations. The data from tests on specimens obtained from massive to moderately jointed heterogeneous(veined) rock masses are used to obtain the rock and rock mass strengths at confining stress ranges that are relevant for deep tunnelling and mining;and a methodology is presented for this purpose from laboratory data alone. By directly obtaining the equivalent HB rock mass strength envelope for massive to moderately jointed rock from laboratory tests,the HB-GSI rock mass strength estimation approach is complemented for conditions where the GSIequations are not applicable. Guidance is also provided on how to apply the proposed approach when laboratory test data are not or not yet available.     

Determination of geological strength index of jointed rock mass based on image processing

The geological strength index(GSI) system,widely used for the design and practice of mining process,is a unique rock mass classification system related to the rock mass strength and deformation parameters based on the generalized Hoek-Brown and Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria.The GSI can be estimated using standard chart and field observations of rock mass blockiness and discontinuity surface conditions.The GSI value gives a numerical representation of the overall geotechnical quality of the rock mass.In this study,we propose a method to determine the GSI quantitatively using photographic images of in situ jointed rock mass with image processing technology,fractal theory and artificial neural network(ANN).We employ the GSI system to characterize the jointed rock mass around the working in a coal mine.The relative error between the proposed value and the given value in the GSI chart is less than 3.6%.     

一种确定节理岩体残余强度参数方法的探讨

 岩体的地质强度指标(GSI)集中考虑岩体结构和结构面表面特征2个方面的因素,已被广泛地应用于岩体强度参数与变形参数的计算中。在GSI系统的基础上,采用残余GSI量化评价方法,通过对峰值地质强度指标GSI进行折减,以得到残余地质强度指标 ,据此来计算节理岩体的残余强度参数。首先,结合岩体分类指标法(RMi),在 和 的基础上探讨残余岩块体积 和残余节理条件系数 取值的确定方法;然后,由 和 计算出 ,据广义Hoek-Brown准则计算出节理岩体的残余强度参数,重点对4种典型岩体的残余强度取值进行分析,讨论残余岩体体积对岩体残余强度参数的影响;最后,通过对岩体原位剪切实验数据和一桥墩承台开挖边坡的稳定性反分析,证实基于 指标的节理岩体残余强度参数确定方法的合理性和可靠性,为节理岩体残余强度参数的确定提供一条新的思路。     

Determination of mechanical parameters for jointed rock masses

Combining with empirical method, laboratory test and numerical simulation, a comprehensive system was presented to determine the mechanical parameters of jointed rock masses. The system has the following four functions: (1) Based on the field investigation of joints, the system can consider rock mass structures, by using network simulation technology. (2) Rock samples are conducted by numerical simulation with the input engineering mechanical parameters of rocks and joints obtained from laboratory tests. (3) The whole stress-strain curve of jointed rock masses under certain normal stress can be plotted from numerical simulation, and then the shear strength parameters of jointed rock masses can be obtained from the whole stress-strain curves under different normal stresses. (4) The statistical values of mechanical parameters of jointed rock masses can be determined according to numerical simulation. Based on the statistical values, combining with engineering experiences and geological investigations, the comprehensive mechanical parameters of jointed rock masses can be achieved finally. Several cases are presented to prove the engineering feasibility and suitability of this system.     

Determination of mechanical parameters for jointed rock masses

Combining with empirical method, laboratory test and numerical simulation, a comprehensive system was presented to determine the mechanical parameters of jointed rock masses. The system has the following four functions: (1) Based on the field investigation of joints, the system can consider rock mass structures, by using network simulation technology. (2) Rock samples are conducted by numerical simulation with the input engineering mechanical parameters of rocks and joints obtained from laboratory tests. (3) The whole stress-strain curve of jointed rock masses under certain normal stress can be plotted from numerical simulation, and then the shear strength parameters of jointed rock masses can be obtained from the whole stress-strain curves under different normal stresses. (4) The statistical values of mechanical parameters of jointed rock masses can be determined according to numerical simulation. Based on the statistical values, combining with engineering experiences and geological investigations, the comprehensive mechanical parameters of jointed rock masses can be achieved finally. Several cases are presented to prove the engineering feasibility and suitability of this system.     

Rock mass characterization for underground hard rock mines

Rock mass characterization is an integral part of rock engineering practice. There are several classification systems used in underground mine design, however, most Canadian mines rely on only one of three classification systems. It is interesting to note that these systems—RQD, RMR and Q system—have their origins in civil engineering. This paper reviews the current state of these classification systems as employed in the mining industry. The first part focuses on the determination of the field parameters, with emphasis on the modifications to each parameter over the last 20 years. The difference between classification parameters that influence rock mass strength estimation and those that influence engineering design is emphasized. The second part of the paper focuses on the design recommendations based on these systems, such as maximum span, opening geometry, and support recommendations. The paper concludes with reference to errors that may arise in particular conditions.     

A 3D synthetic rock mass numerical method for characterizations of rock mass and excavation damage zone near tunnels

In practice, a damage zone is generally formed after tunnel excavation in jointed rock mass. This damage zone is closely related to rock mass properties and requires careful examination in order for cost effective supporting designs. In this research, a synthetic rock mass (SRM) numerical method is applied for characterizations of the jointed rock mass and excavation damage zone (EDZ) near underground tunnels in 3D. The SRM model consists of bonded particles and simulates deformation and crack propagation of the rock mass through interactions between these particles. The effects of joint stiffness and distribution on the rock mass properties are systematically examined by comparing the numerical data with an empirical geological strength index (GSI) system and an associated Hoek-Brown strength criterion. The numerical results suggest that rock mass properties are comparable to the empirical GSI/Hoek-Brown system only when inclined joints are simulated in the rock mass subjected to axial loading. The rock mass is strengthened and the empirical GSI/Hoek-Brown characterization becomes inappropriate when the joints are less favorable to shear sliding. The SRM method is then applied for characterizations of tunnel EDZ. It appears that the depth and location of the EDZ are a function of the tunnel orientation, joints, and in situ stresses. The EDZ depth is expected to be higher when inclined joints are simulated. The EDZ area is reduced when the joints in the rock mass are horizontally and vertically distributed.

     

Rock mechanics for design of Brisbane tunnels and implications of recent thinking in relation to rock mass strength

This paper explores the potential implications of recent thinking in relation to rock mass strength for future tunnelling projects in Brisbane, Australia, particularly as they are constructed within deep horizons where the in situ stress magnitudes is larger. Rock mass failure mechanisms for the current tunnels in Brisbane are generally discontinuity controlled and the potential for stress-induced failure is relatively rare. For the road tunnels which have been constructed in Brisbane over the last 12 years, the strength of the more massive rock masses for continuum analysis has been estimated by the application of the Hoek-Brown (H-B) failure criterion using the geological strength index (GSI) to determine the H-B parameters m_b, s and a. Over the last few years, alternative approaches to estimating rock mass strength for ‘massive to moderately jointed hard rock masses’ have been proposed by others, which are built on the work completed by E. Hoek and E.T. Brown in this area over their joint careers. This paper explores one of these alternative approaches to estimating rock mass strength for one of the geological units (the Brisbane Tuff), which is often encountered in tunnelling projects in Brisbane. The potential implications of these strength forecasts for future tunnelling projects are discussed along with the additional work which will need to be undertaken to confirm the applicability of such alternative strength criteria for this rock mass.     

Modification of rock mass rating system: Interbedding of strong and weak rock layers

Rock mass classification systems are the very important part for underground projects and rock mass rating(RMR) is one of the most commonly applied classification systems in numerous civil and mining projects. The type of rock mass consisting of an interbedding of strong and weak layers poses difficulties and uncertainties for determining the RMR. For this, the present paper uses the concept of rock bolt supporting factor(RSF) for modification of RMR system to be used in such rock mass types. The proposed method also demonstrates the importance of rock bolting practice in such rock masses. The geological parameters of the Shemshak Formation of the Alborz Tunnel in Iran are used as case examples for development of the theoretical approach.     

A geo-engineering classification for rocks and rock masses

In this article, an attempt is made to assess the reliability of predicting the uniaxial compressive strength and the corresponding modulus of a rock mass by current approaches. These two basic engineering properties, when estimated from rock mass rating (RMR), Q and geological strength index (GSI), indicate hardly any change in the modulus ratio with the change in the quality of the rock mass from very good to very poor. However, the modulus ratio obtained from the relations involving the joint factor, J_f, indicate a definite decrease in the modulus ratio with a decrease in the quality of the rock mass. The strength and modulus in the unconfined and confined states, the modulus ratio and failure strain in the unconfined case were linked to J_f in earlier publications based on a large experimental database. Some of these relations were adopted to verify the response of jointed test specimens, the response of the rock mass during excavations for mining and civil underground chambers, in establishing ground reaction curves including the extent of the broken zone, and the bearing capacity of shallow foundations.The joint factor is now linked to RMR, Q and GSI. The prediction of compressive strength and modulus of the rock mass appears to be more suitable. For classifying the rock, based on these properties, the Deere and Miller engineering classification, applicable to intact rocks, has been suitably modified and adopted. The results of different modes of failure of jointed specimens establish definite trends of changes in the modulus ratio originating from the intact rock value on the modified Deere and Miller plot. A geo-engineering classification is evolved by considering strength, modulus, quantifiable weathering index and lithological aspects of the rock.     

Advances in statistical mechanics of rock masses and its engineering applications

To efficiently link the continuum mechanics for rocks with the structural statistics of rock masses,a theoretical and methodological system called the statistical mechanics of rock masses(SMRM)was developed in the past three decades.In SMRM,equivalent continuum models of stressestrain relationship,strength and failure probability for jointed rock masses were established,which were based on the geometric probability models characterising the rock mass structure.This follows the statistical physics,the continuum mechanics,the fracture mechanics and the weakest link hypothesis.A general constitutive model and complete stressestrain models under compressive and shear conditions were also developed as the derivatives of the SMRM theory.An SMRM calculation system was then developed to provide fast and precise solutions for parameter estimations of rock masses,such as full-direction rock quality designation(RQD),elastic modulus,Coulomb compressive strength,rock mass quality rating,and Poisson’s ratio and shear strength.The constitutive equations involved in SMRM were integrated into a FLAC3D based numerical module to apply for engineering rock masses.It is also capable of analysing the complete deformation of rock masses and active reinforcement of engineering rock masses.Examples of engineering applications of SMRM were presented,including a rock mass at QBT hydropower station in northwestern China,a dam slope of Zongo II hydropower station in D.R.Congo,an open-pit mine in Dexing,China,an underground powerhouse of Jinping I hydropower station in southwestern China,and a typical circular tunnel in Lanzhou-Chongqing railway,China.These applications verified the reliability of the SMRM and demonstrated its applicability to broad engineering issues associated with jointed rock masses.     

Influence of plastic shear strain and confinement-dependent rock dilation on rock failure and displacement near an excavation boundary

Excavation-induced rock failure and displacement near an underground opening boundary is closely associated with rock mass dilation. A better understanding of rock mass dilation around the excavation helps us to predict or anticipate displacements and extent and shape of the failed zone, and subsequently assist design of proper ground support systems. A calibrated cohesion weakening and frictional strengthening (CWFS) model with a constant dilation angle can capture the stress-induced brittle failure shape in hard rocks. However, the use of a constant dilation angle, in either CWFS, Mohr–Coulomb perfectly elasto-plastic, or Mohr–Coulomb strain-softening models, cannot simulate the displacement distribution near the excavation reasonably. In the present study, numerical simulations are performed to study excavation-induced displacement around tunnels located in different rock mass types, i.e., coarse-grained hard rock, medium-grained hard rock, fine–medium-grained soft rock, and fine-grained soft rock, using a mobilized dilation angle model that depends on both confining stress and plastic shear strain. It is illustrated from a few examples that displacement distributions obtained from the dilation angle model are more reasonable when compared with the general trend measured underground.     

Computing in-situ strength of rock masses based upon RQD and modified joint factor: Using pressure and damage sensitive constitutive relationship

In this study, a new model was presented for computing strength of rock masses based upon in-situ observations of RQD popularly known as rock quality designation. This model links up the rock mass parameters from in-situ investigations with the strength parameters of jointed rocks obtained from laboratory scale experimental observations. Using the constitutive relation, the author derived a pressure and damage sensitive plastic parameter to determine strength of rock masses for varied extents of discontinuity and pressure induced damage. The test results show that plasticity characterized by hardening and softening inclusive of damage invariably depends upon mean pressure and extent of deformations already experienced by rock masses. The present work explores the test data that reveal the dependence of in-situ strength on incremental joint parameters obtained from the joint number,joint orientation, joint roughness, gouge parameters and water pressure. Substituting the relationship between the RQD and modified joint factor with that between modulus ratio and strength ratio, the model shows successfully that using damage inclusive plastic parameter and RQD provides a relationship for estimating the strength of rock masses. One of the main objectives of this work is to illustrate that the present model is sensitive to plasticity and damage together in estimating in-situ strength of rock masses in foundations, underground excavation and tunnels.     

Rock bolt supporting factor: rock bolting capability of rock mass

Rock mass classification has played a crucial role in underground construction and mining projects in the past fifty years, especially the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Rock Tunneling Quality Index (Q) systems, which have been applied in many cases. The parameters of discontinuity conditions in the RMR system, along with the related ratings, were used to develop a new equation in order to introduce an intrinsic quality of a given rock mass, namely, rock bolt supporting factor (RSF). The RSF was used to develop a mathematical theory of the rock bolt supporting mechanism as a new principle in explaining rock bolting effects. Finally, using the parameters of the discontinuities in the Q-system, the QRSF is defined to present the capability of a given rock mass to be reinforced by rock bolting. The RSF leads to more reliable judgment of rock bolting capability of a given rock mass than the QRSF since it uses five parameters of discontinuity conditions while the QRSF uses only two parameters.

     

节理岩体表征单元体尺寸确定的数值模拟

从节理岩体表征单元体的力学意义出发,在通过对某物理试验结果进行模拟以验证RFPA程序模拟节理岩体强度及破裂模式具有适用性的基础上,提出一种基于RFPA数值模拟确定节理岩体表征单元体的方法。该方法基于蒙特卡洛法生成二维节理裂隙网格,实现节理裂隙的表征,将其导入岩石破裂过程分析软件中,分析节理岩体弹性模量和单轴抗压、抗拉强度的尺寸效应和各向异性,并据此确定了节理岩体的表征单元体尺寸。最后,针对某采场围岩节理面统计参数,分析讨论节理岩体的尺寸效应和各向异性,通过综合分析确定了节理岩体的弹性模量、抗压强度和抗拉强度等参数,并得出其表征单元体的尺度为6 m×6 m,这为后续的岩石力学研究奠定基础。     

基于Hoek-Brown准则的山岭隧道围岩力学参数估计

将围岩岩体分级系统(Q系统)引入到Hoek-Brown强度准则中,引入节理粗糙度、节理充填物的抗剪强度及岩石所受应力3个指标,对地质强度指标(GSI)进行定量化修正,并基于围岩基本质量指标BQ、裂隙组数、围岩节理条件以及Q系统评分值,重新构建一种GSI的定量化分析方法,通过测量扰动前后围岩的纵波波速优化岩体的扰动参数D。基于修正后的Hoek-Brown强度准则与Mohr-Coulomb强度准则进行等效转化,估算岩体的力学参数,通过与实例工程中试验结果进行对比,得知此方法是合理、可行的。     

Practical equivalent continuum characterization of jointed rock masses

A simple practical method to characterize the strength and stiffness of jointed rock masses is presented in this paper. The empirical relations for the strength and stiffness of rock masses have been arrived based on the statistical analysis of a large amount of experimental data, which are used for representing the jointed rock mass as an equivalent continuum. The effect of joints in the rock mass is taken into account by a joint factor. These obtained relations are incorporated in a non-linear FEM code to represent the equivalent continuum analysis. The equivalent continuum model has been validated against experimental results for jointed rock masses with different joint fabric and joint orientation and also with the results from explicit modeling of joints using FEM. The developed model has also been applied to calculate the deformation around a large power station cavern in rhyolite rock at 200 m depth.     

A new model for effects of impersistent joint sets on rock slope stability

Joints often have profound effects on elastic properties and strength of rock masses and therefore on rock slope stability. In surface mine slopes, joints are usually too numerous to be taken into account individually, so an equivalent properties approach is necessary. Previous work that treats a jointed rock mass as an equivalent composite material of joints and intact rock between resulted in excellent agreement between estimated and true rock mass elastic moduli in case of fully persistent joints, for example, [Pariseau WG. An equivalent plasticity theory for jointed rock masses. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 1999;36(7):907–18]. Rock mass failure mechanisms on joints and through intact rock were retained using influence functions obviating the need for an equivalent rock mass strength. Impersistent joints, which are not continuous on a joint plane, can be accommodated [Pariseau WG. Effects of joint persistence on jointed rock masses. Trans Soc Min Metal Explor 2003;314:121–8]. However, slope stability analysis of a large, deep copper mine indicated a need for computational efficiency even in two-dimensional analysis of vertical sections through pit walls [Puri S. Role of joint persistence in rock slope stability. MS thesis, Department of Mining Engineering, University of Utah, 2006]. The analyses by the popular finite element method used small elements of bench size near the pit slopes and much larger elements away from the pit walls. The reasons for the graded meshes were numerical accuracy (small elements) and computational economy (large elements). Small elements contained only a few joints, while the larger elements contained hundreds of joints and led to impractical computation run times, on the order of days. A new modeling procedure that recognizes sufficiently large elements as representative volume elements (RVEs) assists in overcoming this obstacle. A companion improvement embeds a sufficient number of joints in RVE-size elements that then allows for recovery of joint failure mechanisms that are lost with the RVE designation. These innovations reduced PC (Pentium-4) run times by two orders of magnitude to a few hours.