Berechnung von Holz‐Beton‐Verbunddecken

Evaluation of Timber Concrete Composite Slabs If timber and concrete acts together in a cross section, the carrying and deformation behaviour of this new composite section is affected by many influences e.g. geometry, material properties, connecting device, long‐term behaviour, etc. The advantages of this building method and an optimization of the cross sections only can be achieved, if these influences are known and can be taken into account in the structural design. For the proof of the short term behaviour different procedures, e. g. [1], are available. Regarding the long‐term behaviour of the timber concrete composite floors it becomes obvious that the rheological behaviour of timber concrete composite structures is not considered sufficiently by the design method in [1].     

Moisture-induced stresses perpendicular to grain in cross-sections of timber members exposed to different climates

In variable humidity conditions, wood absorbs or desorbs moisture from the air. Unless the change in humidity is very slow, this will develop moisture gradients in the wood sections. These gradients will develop stresses due to constrained swelling or shrinkage strains. These stresses are named moisture-induced stresses. The present paper investigates the main parameters affecting such moisture-induced stresses, including the type of climate, the size of the timber cross-section, and the type of protective coating. A first attempt to identify moisture-induced stresses in different European climatic regions was made. For each climatic region, relative humidity and temperature histories were identified, and characteristic and mean values of yearly and daily variations were calculated. Using a finite element model implemented in Abaqus, the moisture content and stress distribution were computed on different timber cross-sections exposed to the climatic regions and protected with different types of coating. A Fickian moisture transfer model was used to compute the moisture distribution, and a mechanical model for time-dependent behaviour of wood was implemented to calculate the corresponding stress distribution. The variation of moisture was found to result in stresses of magnitudes that would probably cause cracking of wood in the perimeter of any uncoated cross-section size. The use of a protective coating, however, reduced considerably the moisture-induced stresses, and can be regarded as an effective protective measure to avoid cracking due to humidity variations. Considering European climates, Northern climates were found to result in higher surface tensile stresses than Southern climates.     

Hybridbrücken mit blockverleimtem Brettschichtholz

Hybrid bridges with log‐glued‐laminated timber. In Germany, timber as load‐bearing element of bridges is only used for the construction of foot‐ and bicycle viaducts. The development of new timber‐based products and modern technologies gives interesting chances for timber bridge‐building in future. Main beams with high stiffness and stability of dimension can be produced by log‐glued lamination of timber. Efficient hybrid cross‐sections of superstructures as timber‐concrete‐composite constructions can be made by the combination of beams consisting of log‐glued‐laminated timber and concrete deck slab. For road bridges, these hybrid cross‐sections could be used alternatively to conventional methods of construction. The following paper gives a review of the development status of timber‐concrete‐composite construction in bridge building and shows static and constructive specifics.     

Auswirkungen der Baurestfeuchte auf Innenklima und Holzfeuchte bei Holz‐Mischbauweisen

Effects of the build‐in‐moisture on indoor climate and wood moisture of timber mixed construction Within the scope of the competence center “wood technology” the Holzforschung Austria deals with the combination of prefabricated timber elements in the building shell with concrete construction parts for high rise buildings. In addition to the design of construction details a one‐zone model has been created – in close collaboration with the Technical University of Vienna – to analyze the effects of residual humidity on the internal climate and on the moisture content of the timber elements. The simulated drying properties of the concrete elements are consistent with the results of the analysis of the Verein der Österreichischen Zementfabrikanten in matters of drying time and change of moisture content. In addition to the variation of the beginning and progress of construction work and the behavior of air conditioning three different exterior wall constructions – one timber frame construction with OSB and one with PE as vapour barrier and a construction with solid timber boards without vapour barrier have been analysed.     

Langzeitverhalten geklebter Bauteile aus Holz und hochfestem Beton bei natürlichem Klima

Longterm‐behavior of glued full‐scale specimens made from wood and high performance concrete at natural climate conditions The advantages of the construction materials wood and concrete could be used effectively in wood‐concrete‐composite constructions. The composite structure shows optimized load carrying capacity, a better vibrational behavior, higher noise protection and a higher thermally activatable mass in comparison to constructions that are entirely made from wood. Mechanical fasteners or form fitting connections are state‐of‐the‐art for connecting timber to concrete. This leads to more or less flexible bond. By using the adhesive technology a ”rigid bond“ can be achieved and it is possible to combine the advantages of a ”dry construction method“ with the advantages of the prefabrication. The questions of the production technology and the short‐term behavior of glued wood‐concrete composite constructions were answered yet at the department of timber structures at the University of Kassel. Knowledge of long‐term behavior was missing for an application in construction practice. This was studied in the last three years in detail. The experimental und numerical investigations on full‐scale specimens and the conclusions for a practical application are reported in the following article.     

Ingenieurholzbau für mehrgeschossige Industriebauten – Konzept und Detaillösungen

Timber construction engineering for multiple storey buildings A multiple storey industrial building was erected in Berlin with timber and timber‐concrete‐composite technology. The load bearing system made of glued laminated timber has a height of four floors in visual quality and with a fire resistance level of R90. The design was done by Roswag architects, the load bearing system with timber and TCC ceilings was developed by Stephan Holzbau GmbH. A special challenge are the joints of the post and lintel construction. The high load impact from the posts had to be transfered by the continuing timber lintels. Therefore, a special solution was found in a polymer compound grout with a very high compression resistance. Drill holes, perpendicular to the grain, were filled with the grout to produce integrated columns. Hence, the impact to the cross section of the glulam lintel is low and the load bearing system transfer still works without limitations. Due to the pre‐fabrication and computer‐aided wood‐working in the workshops of Stephan Holzbau it was possible to meet the very high standards of visual appearance and precision of the construction. Furthermore, the cost of the joints could be reduced by about 30 % compared to usual steel details.     

Auswirkungen kurz‐ und langzeitiger Luftfeuchteschwankungen auf die Holzfeuchte und die Eigenschaften von Holz

Holz und Holzwerkstoffe passen ihren Feuchtegehalt dem Umgebungsklima an. Der Feuchtegehalt ist ein wichtiger Parameter, da er alle Eigenschaften des Werkstoffes wesentlich beeinflusst. Sowohl kurzfristige als auch langfristige Feuchtänderungen können Schäden an Bauteilen, Möbeln oder Kulturgut verursachen. Es wird über langfristige Labormessungen der Holzfeuchte an Brettschichtholzbindern mittels Einschlagelektroden sowie über Infrarot‐Messungen der Oberflächenfeuchte berichtet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich in großen Querschnitten erst über lange Zeiträume hinweg konstante Feuchten einstellen. In der Praxis allerdings wird dies kaum der Fall sein, da Feuchteschwankungen durch Änderung des Umgebungsklimas vorkommen. Dies wird zu Spannungen und im Extremfall zu Schäden im Material führen. Die Messungen an der Oberfläche haben ergeben, dass sich hier bereits nach ca. 1 Stunde ein Gleichgewicht einstellt. Effect of short and long‐term humidity variations on the moisture content and properties of wood. Wood and wood composites adapt their moisture content to the environmental climate. The moisture content is an important parameter, since it significantly influences all properties of wood. Short‐term as well as long‐term moisture changes may cause damage of structural elements, furniture, or cultural heritage. This paper reports long‐term laboratory measurements of moisture in glulam beams and infrared‐measurements of the surface moisture content. The results show that the moisture content in large‐sized samples equilibrates after a long‐term period. However, in practice this would not be the case, since the environmental climate varies. This would lead to stresses and in extreme cases to damage of the material. The measurements of the surface moisture content yield equilibrium after one hour.     

Innovative Betone für Holz‐Beton‐Verbundkonstruktionen

Innovative concretes for timber‐concrete composite constructions. Timber‐concrete composite constructions are currently applied mainly for new buildings or when strengthening existing timber beam slabs. The load bearing capacity of timber‐concrete composite slabs is essentially affected by the material properties of the concrete slab and timber beam itself as well as the efficiency of bond between both parts. As nowadays a wide spectrum of different innovative concretes is available their applicability for timber‐concrete composite constructions has to be verified. In the following the focus is set for self‐consolidating concrete, steel fibre reinforced concrete, structural lightweight concrete, high‐strength and ultra high‐strength concrete. The advantages but also disadvantages of these concretes will be explained considering structural, economic and processing aspects and building physics.     

Predicting moisture state of timber members in a continuously varying climate

A prerequisite for a sensible estimate of moisture induced stresses in timber members is an accurate prediction of the members’ moisture states during their service life. There are, however, an infinite number of possible moisture states for an arbitrary timber member in a natural varying climate. The naturally varying humidity is possible to describe as harmonic cycles, with different periods, superimposed. This work presents realizations of envelop curves over the possible moisture states in a timber member for some carefully chosen harmonic humidity variations. The calculations, on which the realizations were made, are based on a fully coupled transport model including a model for the influential sorption hysteresis of wood. A format containing required information suitable for assessing the “moisture” action on timber members is proposed. In addition it is illustrated how a model of high complexity and nonlinearity renders results with large degree of consistency. Large moisture gradients in a timber member are detected when variations of the humidity are frequent (daily period) and with large amplitude at high humidity levels. Overall and complete moisture changes of structural timber members with normal dimensions are found for members subjected to varying humidity with long (annual) periods. A timber member’s initial moisture state in relation to the ambient humidity can have a significant influence on both moisture gradients and overall moisture change of the member.     

Wärme‐ und Feuchtetransport in Holzbauelementen unter freier Bewitterung

Es wurden vergleichende Untersuchungen des Wärme‐ und Feuchtetransportes in unterschiedlichen Holzbaukonstruktionen unter freier Bewitterung durchgeführt. Insgesamt wurden fünf Konstruktionen an Versuchsbauten auf dem Gelände der ETH Zürich getestet. Neben einer verdübelten Massivholzkonstruktion wurden zwei Ständerkonstruktionen und zwei weitere Vollholzkonstruktionen untersucht. Aus den gewonnenen Daten wurden dynamische Parameter der Gebäudehüllen ermittelt. Zusätzlich wurden Messungen an drei realen Bauten (zwei verdübelte Massivholzkonstruktionen, eine Ständerkonstruktion) durchgeführt. Die gemessenen Daten der Versuchsbauten wurden mit den Daten der Messungen an realen Bauten verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen unter anderem, dass die Vollholzkonstruktionen sehr ausgewogene, hygrothermische Eigenschaften aufweisen. Heat and moisture transfer in wood‐based constructions under natural weathering. In this project comparative measurements of heat and moisture transfer in wood‐based constructions were carried out under natural weathering conditions at the campus of ETH Zurich. Altogether, five different constructions designed as small test buildings were investigated. In the first observation, the solid wood construction connected with wooden dowels — without any further binders is compared to two conventional wood frame constructions with one and two insulation layers. In the second observation, the mentioned solid wood construction is compared to one log construction and one solid wood construction with slotted wood elements. From the data, the dynamic parameters of the heat and moisture transfer of these building envelopes were determined. Additionally, the heat and moisture data of three real used buildings (two solid wood constructions with wooden dowels and one conventional wood frame construction) were measured. These data were compared with the data measured on the small test buildings. The results, inter alia, are showing that the solid wood constructions achieve a good balance in hygrothermal properties.     

闽浙木拱桥：结构与起源

汴河虹桥与闽浙木拱桥存在着结构上的相似性,但两者在主体结构、关键节点上还是有很大差别：闽浙木拱桥的技术经过很大的改进,它流传范围广,延续时间长,适应性较强,表明其体系相对独立,可能有着自己的发展脉络,并非源于随着宋室南迁带来的北方汴河流域的虹桥技术。     

Thermal transmittance of a cellulose loose-fill insulation material

The thermal performance of cellulose insulation material was investigated and compared with the thermal performance of stone wool batts. The moisture content in selected facade elements insulated with cellulose loose-fill insulation material and stone wool, was investigated as well as the influence of the moisture content on thermal transmittance.The investigation was carried out as a full-scale test under normal climate conditions in a moisture test house facility. Facade elements were built as timber frame constructions. Heat flow through the facade elements was measured with built-in heat flowmeters and the moisture content in the thermal insulation behind the wind barrier was measured with moisture measuring dowels.The test showed that the thermal performance of the tested type of cellulose loose-fill insulation material was significantly lower than the thermal performance of stone wool batts. The maximum moisture content of the insulation material was below, what in Denmark is considered critical for the onset of rot and growth of wood decaying fungi. The thermal transmittance did not change with changes in the moisture content within the investigated hygroscopic range.     

Charring model for timber frame floor assemblies with void cavities

Design models of timber structures in fire usually take into account the loss in cross section due to charring of wood and the temperature-dependent reduction of strength and stiffness of the uncharred residual cross section. For timber frame wall and floor assemblies with void cavities, only a little information is available. In the first part of the paper, the results of an extensive FE-thermal analysis on initially protected timber beams exposed to fire on three sides, after the fire protection has fallen off (post-protection phase), are presented. The FE-thermal analysis verified by fire tests on protected timber specimens exposed to one-dimensional charring permitted the analysis of the main parameters, which influence charring during the post-protection phase. Based on the FE-results, a charring model for timber frame floor assemblies with void cavities has been developed and is presented in the second part of the paper. The charring model takes into account the influence of high temperature during the post-protection phase as well as the heat flux superposition on the charring rate of the timber beams exposed to fire on three sides.     

Zur maßgebenden Verkehrslaststellung bei Schrägseilbrücken

Appropriate traffic load cases for steel and composite cable – stayed bridges. A significant problem in the global analysis of bridge structures is to find the most unfavourable position of the traffic loads for each cross‐section. In practice usually those traffic load cases are chosen which maximise one part of stresses at the cross‐section (often expressed in form of internal forces). First of all a simple method is presented to find out the most unfavourable traffic load position, also applicable for complex interaction formulae including web buckling. Secondly an example of a cable‐stayed bridge is analysed. For two significant sections of the bridge deck the results are presented. The stresses due to the conventional practical procedure are compared with the more accurate ones. The behaviour is explained by the corresponding influence lines. Based on these results some proposals for practical work are given. The presented procedure is also applicable to other types of construction works and materials (e.g. reinforced concrete).     

Zur Adhäsion von Wärmedämmverbundsystemen auf Holzwerkstoffplatten

Adhesion of composite thermal insulation systems on wood‐based panels. Failure of the adhesive bond may occur if composite thermal insulation systems are attached to wood‐based panels in timber frame structures. In the past the causes of the adhesive failure have been unclear due to the lack of systematic studies. Based on experimental studies, this article describes and explains the relationship between changes in the topographical structure of wood‐based panels caused by the moisture contained in the adhesive mortar and the adhesive strength of mortar as a function of mortar composition. These empirical findings were used to derive normalised adhesion curves for the expected adhesion strength on the most commonly used wood‐based panels. An additional series of experiments revealed seasonal changes in the moisture content of the wood‐based panels as the main problem for the adhesive bond. The results were used to derive the maximum permissible moisture content variation in wood‐based panels depending on the composition of the adhesive mortar used. The findings enable scientifically sound evaluation of the adhesive bond between adhesive mortars and wood‐based panels and can be used for deriving application recommendations for composite thermal insulation systems in timber frame structures.     

Stahlverbundbrücken mit begehbaren Kastenträgern

Steel‐Composite bridges with box girders which are to be inspected on foot. In the last years the development in shaping of cross sections of bridges over a valley shows a tendency to some special types in dependency on the site, which were built again and again. These are the cross sections with one trapezoid box girder, consisting of a steel trough and a concrete slab, which is to be inspecting on foot as well as cross sections with two airtight welded box girders of steel, connected with the concrete deck slab, too. All the bridges with these cross sections are so designed that there is only a composite effect in longitudinal direction. To realise an economical bridge building, there has to be taken some typical design criterions into consideration for each type of cross section. The following paper describes these design criterions for cross sections with one trapezoid box girder and points out the optimal cross section and the economical area of application.     

Service life prediction and environmental exposure conditions of timber claddings in South Chile

ABSTRACT

In this research, a methodology for the service life prediction of external timber claddings is proposed and discussed. The proposed model is based on the visual assessment of 110 timber claddings, subjected to real exposure conditions. The claddings under analysis belong to 80 buildings, with and without heritage characteristics, located in Valdivia and Niebla, South Chile. Timber claddings are a relevant symbol of the local identity of this region, portraying a complexity of ideas and cultural values, inherited by Spanish and German colonizations. The main anomalies that can occur in these claddings are translated into a numerical index, which describes the overall degradation condition of a timber façade. This work also discusses the influence of the local climate and environmental exposure conditions, considering biotic factors (fungi, insects, moulds, algae and bacteria) and abiotic factors (water, solar radiation, amplitude of temperature, physical damage) in the evolution of the degradation condition of timber claddings. The scarcity of funds in Chile to maintain and preserve the constructions and its components needs a more rational approach to decision-making concerning inspection, maintenance and rehabilitation procedures. The expeditious tool proposed in this paper may help in providing the basis for rational decision-making by professionals in practice.     

Der Stabbogen bei stählernen Straßenbrücken – Entwicklungstendenzen der letzten 50 Jahre – Teil I

The strut arch in using of steel road bridges mainly in Germany – trends of developments into the last 50 years. By the presentation is given a survey about the development of the designing the arch construction for steel road bridges inclusive the constructive details. In the detail are considerd the suspensions with their connections, the cross‐sections of the arch, springing arch, arch model and the roadway‐constructions into different phases. At last of the investigation are presented some typical erection‐examples.     

Zur Berechnung von Holz‐Beton‐Verbundträgern mit Methoden der mathematischen Optimierung

Holz‐Beton‐Verbundkonstruktionen weisen als hybride Tragwerke gegenüber reinen Holz‐ bzw. Stahlbetonkonstruktionen zahlreiche Vorteile auf. Wesentlich für die Effizienz der Hybridbauweise ist die Ausbildung der Verbundfuge. Der vorliegende Beitrag stellt ein neues Verbundelement für Straßenbrücken in Holz‐Beton‐Verbundbauweise vor, welches im Rahmen eines Forschungsprojekts an der Bauhaus‐Universität Weimar entwickelt wurde. Die rechnerische Analyse der Verbundkonstruktion erfolgt — abweichend von den im Hybridbau bisher üblichen Berechnungsmethoden — unter Anwendung von Energiemethoden und Nutzung von Algorithmen der mathematischen Optimierung. Calculation of timber‐concrete composite structures using mathematical optimization methods. Timber‐concrete composite structures have many advantages over conventional timber and re inforced concrete structures. The efficiency of such hybrid structures significantly depends on the properties of the com posite joint. This article presents a novel structural element for the joint of timber‐concrete composite bridges, which was developed as part of a research project at the Bauhaus‐Universität Weimar. In contrast to standard calculation methods, an energy method and the mathematical optimization is applied for the numerical analysis of the hybrid structure.     

Klimatische Verhältnisse in Kriechkellern unter gedämmten Holzbodenplatten

Climatic conditions in crawl spaces below thermal insulated wooden base plates. Highly insulated wooden base plates in combination with crawl space constructions for foundations of residential and functional timber‐buildings were more frequently applied in the last years. Missing knowledge of micro‐climatic conditions in crawl spaces and the resulting boundary conditions for timber and wooden board materials led to various constructional designs. By long term in‐situ measurements and laboratory tests, design principles which guarantee a durable use of wooden base plates in combination with air ventilated crawl spaces were developed.