A comparison of two models for predicting mathematics performance: Social learning versus math aptitude–anxiety.

Contrasted the ability of 2 theoretical models to explain the mathematics final examination performance of 97 female and 46 male undergraduates. The 1st model, comprising A. Bandura's (1977) social-learning theory variables, included situationally specific mathematics skills (previous course examination grades), incentives, self-efficacy expectations, and outcomes expectations. These data were collected immediately prior to the final examination. The 2nd model, the mathematics aptitude–anxiety model, included general mathematics ability, gender, sex-role orientation, and mathematics anxiety. These data were collected during the last class before the examination. The social-learning theory model accounted for significantly more performance variation than did the alternative model. Within the social-learning model, each of the variables (skills, incentives, efficacy expectations, and outcome expectations) accounted for significant and unique increments in performance variation. Only mathematics aptitude accounted for significant variation in the alternative model. Implications of the results for increasing mathematics performance are discussed. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A factorial experiment in teachers' written feedback on student homework: Changing teacher behavior a little rather than a lot.

In a field study that replicated previous research by the authors (1981), 18 Venezuelan elementary school teachers were trained to provide constructive written feedback on the mathematics homework of their 6th-grade students (N?=?504) 3 times weekly for 10 wks. In addition to learning and attitude outcomes, aptitude?×?treatment interactions (ATIs) were examined among treatments and student ability, attitude, and sex. Results show significant main effects favoring students whose teachers provided feedback on mathematics achievement and attitude toward mathematics. No ATIs were found, indicating that the training had positive effects on student learning regardless of ability levels. The treatment was associated with reduced sex differences favoring males over the course of the study. Implications for implementing similar classroom intervention programs are discussed. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The male role, alcohol use, and alcohol problems: A structural modeling examination in adult women and men.

Most research on sex differences in alcohol involvement suggests that drinking is a component of the male gender role, but the impact of specific male role factors on alcohol involvement has not yet been studied. The authors used structural modeling to examine the relationships among 3 male role variables (agency, traditional male role attitudes, and masculine gender role stress), alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related problems in a sample of women and men. To determine whether sex moderates this relationship, models were computed separately for men and women. For men, traditional attitudes led to more alcohol consumption, whereas agentic traits protected them from experiencing alcohol-related problems, and experiencing masculine gender role stress was a risk factor for these problems. Male role variables were unrelated to women's alcohol consumption, but women who believed more in the traditional role of men suffered from more alcohol-related problems. Discussion centers on the contribution of components of the male role on alcohol outcomes as well as the different implications for men and women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

There is more to aptitude than cognitive capacities: Comment.

Comments on the original article "Sex Differences in Intrinsic Aptitude for Mathematics and Science?: A Critical Review," by E. S. Spelke (see record 2005-15840-001). Spelke's critical review is a research-based rebuttal (though implicitly) of Summers's (2005) speech that posited a hypothesis that one of the reasons why women are underrepresented in math, science, and engineering may be sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science. Putting aside the question of whether the empirical evidence was sufficiently reviewed, the way Spelke conceptualized aptitude as a static rather than a dynamic quality (namely, cognitive capacities) rendered her critique of the "differences in intrinsic aptitude" hypothesis less effective in many respects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mathematics achievement: Effects of language of instruction and teachers' use of new curriculum materials.

Examined the mathematics achievement of English-speaking randomly selected Grade-3 pupils enrolled in 8 English (n?=?223) or 4 French immersion (n?=?92) programs in a large Ontario school board. Language of instruction and the extent to which teachers reported use of a locally developed mathematics curriculum document were the independent variables. General ability and mathematics pretest scores were used as multiple covariates, and mathematics posttest scores (arithmetic, geometry, graphing, and measurement) were the dependent variables. French and English versions of a locally developed and validated objectives-based mathematics test were administered in October 1981, and equivalent forms plus a nonverbal aptitude test were administered in May 1982. The teachers completed a teacher survey. There were no significant differences between the mathematics posttest scores of English and French immersion groups, although the latter had higher pretest scores and higher general aptitude scores. Overall, pupils whose teachers reported greater use of the curriculum document obtained higher posttest scores than pupils whose teachers reported lower use of the document. There was a relationship between pupil achievement and reported use of the document within the English program and a statistically significant interaction between language of instruction and reported use of the curriculum document. (French abstract) (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early sex differences in spatial skill.

This study investigated sex differences in young children's spatial skill. The authors developed a spatial transformation task, which showed a substantial male advantage by age 4 years 6 months. The size of this advantage was no more robust for rotation items than for translation items. This finding contrasts with studies of older children and adults, which report that sex differences are largest on mental rotation tasks. Comparable performance of boys and girls on a vocabulary task indicated that the male advantage on the spatial task was not attributable to an overall intellectual advantage of boys in the sample. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial Ability and Home-Range Size: Examining the Relationship in Western Men and Women (Homo sapiens).

In mammals, spatial sex differences may have coevolved with sex differences in the size of home ranges. This study first evaluated whether, in keeping with most mammals and traditional human (Homo sapiens) societies, home ranges are larger in male than in female Westerners. Second, it established whether navigation patterns are associated with a broader set of spatial abilities in men than in women. Results showed that current male home ranges surpass female home ranges. Ranging was also positively correlated with achievement in tests of mental rotation, surface development, and location memory among men only, whereas it was associated with embedded figures scores in both sexes. Overall, these findings substantiate the adaptive role of several spatial sex differences in humans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth order and sex of sibling effects on intellectual abilities.

Studied the relationship between sex, sex of sibling, aptitude, and achievement in 402 male and 494 female high school students from 2-child families. Gpas for english, foreign languages, mathematics, natural science, social science, and electives were obtained. Scores on 5 verbal and 5 nonverbal tests of quantitative skills were assessed. Firstborm males were superior to secondborn males on 15 measures, but significantly (p     

The influence of spatial ability on gender differences in mathematics college entrance test scores across diverse samples.

The relationship between mental rotation ability and gender differences in Scholastic Aptitude Test-Math (SAT-M) across diverse samples was investigated. Talented preadolescents, college students and high- and low-ability college-bound youths, totaling 760, were administered the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test. Gender comparisons showed male outperforming female students in both mental rotation and SAT-M for all 3 high-ability groups but not for the low-ability group. For all female samples, mental rotation predicted math aptitude even when SAT-Verbal was entered first into the regression. For male samples, the relationship varied as a function of sample. When mental rotation ability was statistically adjusted for, the significant gender difference in SAT-M was eliminated for the college sample and the high-ability college-bound students. This suggests that spatial ability may be responsible in part for mediating gender differences in math aptitude among these groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex Differences in Intrinsic Aptitude for Mathematics and Science?: A Critical Review.

This article considers 3 claims that cognitive sex differences account for the differential representation of men and women in high-level careers in mathematics and science: (a) males are more focused on objects from the beginning of life and therefore are predisposed to better learning about mechanical systems; (b) males have a profile of spatial and numerical abilities producing greater aptitude for mathematics; and (c) males are more variable in their cognitive abilities and therefore predominate at the upper reaches of mathematical talent. Research on cognitive development in human infants, preschool children, and students at all levels fails to support these claims. Instead, it provides evidence that mathematical and scientific reasoning develop from a set of biologically based cognitive capacities that males and females share. These capacities lead men and women to develop equal talent for mathematics and science. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the correlates of stimulus seeking.

Conducted 5 experiments to correlate Zuckerman, Kolin, Price, and Zoob's Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) with other variables, e.g., scores on the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale. Ss included 518 college and high school students of both sexes and a sample of their parents (n = 341), 40 male general psychiatric patients, and 62 male alcoholic patients. Results were analyzed in terms of differences in the correlates for the total sample by sex, and differences in SSS scores for parents and their children. In males, the SSS was positively related to academic aptitude and liberal sexual attitudes, and was negatively related to authoritarianism, dogmatism, and passive food preferences. In females, the SSS was positively related to liberal sexual attitudes and negatively related to passive food preferences and to an insignificant degree to authoritarianism. SSS scores of male and female high school students showed a modest tendency to resemble those of their parents. (26 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multivariate analysis of male and female professional career choice correlates.

Personality, aptitude, achievement, and social-demographic characteristics of graduate students in 4 professional degree programs were investigated in a comparative multivariate analysis of the correlates of professional career choice. 173 male and 175 female 1st-yr graduate students in 2 traditionally male fields (law and management) and 2 traditionally female fields (education and social work) completed an extensive questionnaire. Results confirmed the central hypothesis of the study: Differences across careers for each variable were greater than differences between the sexes within careers. In contrast to previous findings, no significant sex differences were found in assertiveness, locus of control, or Machiavellianism. Sex differences were primarily confined to the variables relating to psychological masculinity–femininity and sex role attitudes. The limitations of the current design are noted, and it is stressed that these findings are correlational in nature. Preexisting dispositions and attitudes may be the best predictors of professional career choice, although it is equally possible that these attitudes and attributes are adopted after people have made their career choices (i.e., during graduate school). (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Set versus perceptual defense: A confirmation.

"Two experiments were performed to determine the influence of sex differences and ego involvement upon the perceptual defense phenomenon. Sixty undergraduate students (30 male and 30 female) served in the experiments which involved the tachistoscopic presentation of taboo and neutral words. The major independent variables differentiating the matched experimental and control groups were the type of instructions received and sex groups. The results were interpreted as being similar to the results of previous studies, with similar explanatory principles involved, and in addition, the factors of sex differences and ego involvement were demonstrated to influence the perceptual defense phenomenon." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality factors in student drug use.

Interviewed a random sample of 160 male and female undergraduates concerning illicit psychotropic drug use and administered the Personality Research Form. Univariate and multivariate analyses strongly supported the hypothesis that nonusers, moderate users, and heavy users of illicit drugs differ in personality characteristics. Dramatic sex differences were observed in the personality characteristics associated with illicit drug use, suggesting that sex and personality interact in a crucial way to influence drug use. The relationships between illicit drug use and GPA, satisfaction with academic performance, aptitude, and other relevant variables were also investigated. The data are interpreted as suggesting that both male and female heavy users may have rejected their stereotypic sex roles. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning to form a spatial category of tight-fit relations: How experience with a label can give a boost.

Two experiments explored the ability of 18-month-old infants to form an abstract categorical representation of tight-fit spatial relations in a visual habituation task. In Experiment 1, infants formed an abstract spatial category when hearing a familiar word (tight) during habituation but not when viewing the events in silence or when hearing a novel word. In Experiment 2, infants were given experience viewing and producing tight-fit relations while an experimenter labeled them with a novel word. Following this experience, infants formed the tight-fit spatial category in the visual habituation task, particularly when hearing the novel word again during habituation. Results suggest that even brief experience with a label and tight-fit relations can aid infants in forming an abstract categorical representation of tight-fit relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting math anxiety and course performance in college women and men.

Examined the ability of the construct of mathematics anxiety (MAX) to predict the grades of 112 female and 72 male undergraduates in an introductory algebra course. Ss completed the Global Anxiety Scale, a MAX rating scale, and a measure of achieving tendency. Results show that MAX had little to do with course grades after controlling for mathematical aptitude, as measured by the Scholastic Aptitude Test. In addition, MAX was more strongly related to general anxiety in males than in females. This finding suggests that females seeking treatment for MAX are likely to profit from treatment that focuses specifically on mathematics situations. The higher level of MAX among females could not be explained on the basis of differential course-taking, since males had a similar mathematics background. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in mathematics: A function of parental support and student sex typing?

The relationship of sex differences in mathematics to both differential patterns of parental involvement in their children's education and children's sex typing (considering quantitative areas as male domains and verbal areas as female domains) was investigated among 35 female and 173 male extremely mathematically and 48 female and 44 male extremely verbally talented young adolescents (average age 13.7 yrs) and a comparison group, with mathematics and verbal ability determined by the College Board Scholastic Aptitude Test and Test of Standard Written English (SAT). Ss and their parents completed questionnaires 2? yrs after the SAT assessment. Results indicate that patterns of parental support did not vary as a function of child's gender. Fathers tended to be perceived to be somewhat more involved with their children's mathematical activities and mothers with their verbal activities, although these perceptions were not strong. Fathers were not more involved with mathematically talented children than with verbally talented ones, nor was the reverse found for mothers. In addition, children were not strongly sex typed. Moreover, children's sex typing did not relate to perceived parental behaviors or to SAT scores. It is suggested that these aspects of socialization did not relate to current sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability, which have been shown to relate to later sex differences in achievement in quantitative areas. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Phenotypic performance profile of children with reading disabilities: A regression-based test of the phonological-core variable-difference model.

Introduces a new analytic strategy for comparing the cognitive profiles of children developing reading skills at different rates: a regression-based logic analogous to the reading-level match design, but without some of the methodological problems of that design. It provides a unique method for examining whether the reading subskill profiles of poor readers with aptitude/achievement discrepancy differ from those without discrepancy. 907 children (aged 7–16 yrs) were compared on a varied set of phonological, orthographic, memory, and language processing tasks. The results indicated that cognitive differences between these 2 groups of poor readers all reside outside of the word recognition module. The results generally support the phonological-core variable-difference model of reading disability and demonstrate that degree of aptitude/achievement discrepancy is unrelated to the unique cognitive tradeoffs that are characteristic of the word recognition performance of children with reading disabilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) and the development of sexually dimorphic cognitive abilities and cerebral lateralization.

Investigated the possibility that the perinatal hormonal environment is related to the development of cognitive sex differences in humans by comparing 25 women who had been exposed prenatally to DES, a synthetic estrogen, to their unexposed sisters. All Ss completed word fluency and spatial relations tests, the Wonderlic Personnel Test, and a dichotic listening task. The DES-exposed Ss showed a more masculine pattern of lateralization (i.e., a stronger right-ear advantage) than did their sisters on a verbal dichotic task. However, no differences were observed between exposed and unexposed Ss in verbal or visuospatial ability. Although interpretation of these data must be cautious, they provide some support for a relationship between high prenatal estrogen levels and the development of masculine-typical function in humans. Implications for previous studies of biological contributions to cognitive sex differences and possible mechanisms for estrogenic effects on the development of lateralization are discussed. (114 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Abilities, motives, and personal styles: Reply.

Responds to the comments of P. L. Ackerman (see record 2006-12925-012), D. Y. Dai (see record 2006-12925-013), and M. C. Gridley (see record 2006-12925-014) on E. S. Spelke's original article "Sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science? A critical review" (see record 2005-15840-001). Here, the current authors first consider Ackerman's criticism of IQ measures of cognitive sex differences, as well as his suggestion that Advanced Placement tests be used as a second measure. Next, the authors discuss Dai's suggestion that cognition and motivation, abilities and strategies, are inseparably bound in any meaningful measure of aptitude for mathematics and science. Finally, the authors address Gridley's suggestion that differences in men's and women's thinking styles and preferences explain gender disparities in math and science fields. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)