Comparative efficiencies and implications for greenhouse gas emissions of chiller refrigerants

This paper summarizes analyses of refrigerant options for chillers. It presents tabulated global warming potentials and other environmental data for candidate refrigerants. The paper discusses briefly the historic progression in refrigerant release reductions and presents analyses to compare the efficiencies of historic and current refrigerant options. The 28 refrigerants addressed include chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), hydrocarbon (HC), and inorganic (such as ammonia) fluids. The paper discusses the relative importance of the refrigerant-related and energy-related components of chiller emissions.     

离心式冷水机组的制冷剂选择

描述冷水机组特别是大型机组最常用的替代制冷剂。总结了蒙特利尔议定书所制定的制冷剂淘汰时间表。对冷水机组(压缩式与吸收式)目前所使用的制冷剂进行探讨,包括大气寿命、ODP与GWP。概述了离心式冷水机组的最低能效标准。对主要的制冷剂进行科学评估。介绍了除R-123以外的其他替代制冷剂。研究表明,R-123作为目前离心式冷水机组应用最广泛的制冷剂,其ODP与GWP较低,且大气寿命短,放射率低,效率高。对中国而言R-123至少在未来的几十年内仍具有非常显著的环境和经济优势。     

Emissions and environmental impacts from air-conditioning and refrigeration systems

The impacts of air conditioning and refrigeration systems on stratospheric ozone are primarily linked to release of ozone-depleting refrigerants. Their contributions to global warming stem both from release of refrigerants and from emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) for associated energy use. Because the energy-related component has a significantly higher warming impact, phaseout of hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants with less efficient options will increase net GHG emissions. The same conclusion applies for perfluorocarbon (PFCs), though they are less commonly used as refrigerants. Integrated assessment of ozone depletion, global warming, and atmospheric lifetime provides essential indications in the absence of ideal refrigerants, namely those free of these problems as well as safety, stability, compatibility, cost, and similar burdens. This study examines the trend in refrigerant losses from chiller use. It documents both substantial progress in release reductions and the technical innovations to achieve them. It contrasts the impacts of current refrigerants with alternatives and with the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) they replaced. The study examines the sensitivity of efficiency to charge loss. It also summarizes thermodynamic and environmental comparisons of options to show that phaseout decisions based on chemical composition alone, without regard to attributes of individual substances, can result in greater environmental harm than benefit.     

The commercial feasibility of the use of water vapor as a refrigerant

This paper investigates the economic feasibility of a water-based vapor compression chiller with a nominal capacity of 3520 kW (1000 ton). Simplified models of potential cycle configurations are developed and used as a screening tool to identify a baseline cycle, the most attractive configuration for a water-based refrigeration machine. More detailed component-level models are developed to accurately size equipment and predict both the performance and cost of the baseline chiller. These component models address issues that are particularly crucial when water is used in refrigeration cycles, such as compression ratio, compressor discharge superheat and refrigerant-side pressure drop. Where possible, these component models are verified through comparison against the current state-of-the-art technology for large chillers that use R-134a as the refrigerant. The capital cost and expected operating costs are determined in order to quantify the payback and life-cycle costs associated with using water as a refrigerant, relative to traditional halocarbon refrigerants currently in use. Other issues that may have an economic impact on the feasibility of water as a viable alternative to traditional synthetic refrigerants are discussed, including purging and condensation within the compressor.The results show that water-based vapor compression refrigeration systems will not be economically attractive without substantial and successful efforts to develop low-cost, high capacity compressors. The paper provides an indication of the cost targets that must be met in order to make water vapor refrigeration systems practical.     

水作为制冷剂的透平冷水机组研究现状(二)

水是一种古老的制冷剂,至今仍使用在溴化锂吸收式制冷机中和蒸气喷射式制冷机中,但被认为不适合在蒸气压缩式制冷机中使用。自从科学家们发现CFCs和HCFCs制冷剂对大气臭氧层的破坏作用和产生全球气候变暖效应以后,这些CFCs和HCFCs制冷剂在大型透平冷水机组中将被淘汰使用。在寻求新的替代制冷剂时,水重新引起了人们的关注。本文综述使用水作为制冷剂在大型透平冷水机组中应用的研究和开发现状,包括制冷循环的COP分析,透平压缩机的结构和设计,以及三孔口冷凝波转子系统。     

水作为制冷剂的透平冷水机组研究现状(一)

水是一种古老的制冷剂,至今仍使用在溴化锂吸收式制冷机中和蒸气喷射式制冷机中,但被认为不适合在蒸气压缩式制冷机中使用.自从科学家们发现CFCs和HCFCs制冷剂对大气臭氧层的破坏作用和产生全球气候变暖效应以后,这些CFCs和HCFCs制冷剂在大型透平冷水机组中将被淘汰使用.在寻求新的替代制冷剂时,水重新引起了人们的关注.本文综述使用水作为制冷剂在大型透平冷水机组中应用的研究和开发现状,包括制冷循环的COP分析,透平压缩机的结构和设计,以及三孔口冷凝波转子系统.     

Trade-offs in refrigerant selections: past, present, and future

Recent attention to depletion of stratospheric ozone, by chemicals containing bromine and chlorine, resulted in an international accord to halt their production. The most widely used refrigerants are among them. Chemical and equipment manufacturers mounted aggressive research and development programs to introduce alternative and transition refrigerants, associated lubricants and desiccants, and redesigned equipment. The already difficult criteria became even more complex, with subsequent linkage of chemical emissions from human activities to global climate change. The very successful response to protect the ozone layer has led some regulators and users to assume that ideal substitutes will be found. Such chemicals should be free of all environmental and safety concerns, be chemically and thermally stable, and perform efficiently. The analyses presented in this paper demonstrate that the outlook for discovery or synthesis of ideal refrigerants is extremely unlikely. Trade-offs among desired objectives, therefore, are necessary to achieve balanced solutions. The paper also shows that fragmented regulation of the chemicals involved, to address individual issues, jeopardizes the prospect of solving subsequently addressed problems. The paper reviews the history of refrigerants, their roles in ozone depletion and global climate change, and necessary trade-offs in refrigerant selections.     

An elemental NTU- model for vapour-compression liquid chillers

This paper presents a steady-state model for predicting the performance of vapour-compression liquid chillers over a wide range of operating conditions. The model overcomes the idealisations of previous models with regard to modelling the heat exchangers. In particular, it employs an elemental NTU- methodology to model both the shell-and-tube condenser and evaporator. The approach allows the change in heat transfer coefficients throughout the heat exchangers to be accounted for, thereby improving both physical realism and the accuracy of the simulation model. The model requires only those inputs that are readily available to the user (e.g. condenser inlet water temperature and evaporator water outlet temperature). The outputs of the model include system performance variables such as the compressor electrical work input and the coefficient of performance (COP) as well as states of the refrigerant throughout the refrigeration cycle. The methodology employed within the model also allows the performance of chillers using refrigerant mixtures to be modelled. The model is validated with data from one single screw chiller and one twin-screw chiller where the agreement is found to be within ±10%.     

HCFC123与HFC134a离心式冷水机组特性比较

从离心式冷水机组的特性角度出发,阐述冷水机组2种替代制冷剂HFC134a和HCFC123的选择使用,比较分析这2种制冷剂的性能,及其机组性能和其他一些因素。其中制冷剂的环境特性包括毒性、GWP和ODP等。机组性能特性包括产品能耗比及单位质量制冷量比的比较等。其他特性包括产品尺寸、使用维护等。综合考虑上述因素,尤其应考虑2007年9月修订的《蒙特利尔议定书》加速淘汰HCFCs的现实要求,认为在我国对新的离心机组使用HCFC123应持十分谨慎的态度。     

Transient simulation of vapour-compression packaged liquid chillers

This paper presents a transient simulation model that is useful for predicting the dynamic performance of vapour-compression liquid chillers over a wide range of operating conditions. The model employs a thermal capacitance approach for specific state variables to account for the dynamics of the chiller and ancillaries. The model accounts for the change in heat transfer coefficients throughout the heat exchangers thereby improving both physical realism and the accuracy of the simulation model. The model requires only a select few initial conditions (eg. the chilled water and condenser water temperatures). A simple compressor model based on empirical regression has been employed in the simulation. The outputs of the model include system performance variables such as the compressor electrical work input and the coefficient of performance (COP) as well as states of the refrigerant throughout the refrigeration cycle with respect to time. The model is validated with data from two in -situ screw chillers. Predictions are found to be within ±10%, although for one of the chillers a degree of empiricism was employed for the evaporator tube wall mass in order to give satisfactory results for the start-up process.     

离心式冷水机组制冷剂选择的探讨

阐述了离心式冷水机组的两种替代制冷剂HFC134a和HCFC123的性能,综合比较了这两种制冷剂的安全性、效率和其它一些因素。从安全性能来讲,HFC134a占有优势;在效率方面,HCFC123略高于HFC134a;由于HCFC123的ODP不为零,根据蒙特利尔议定书这一强制性条约,它将限制禁用;同时京都议定书也要求限制HFCs的排放量。最后文中结合了中国国情对HCFC123的使用进行了风险分析,认为就目前而言,HFC134a应当成为替代剂的主流。     

A cost-based method for comparing alternative refrigerants applied to R-22 systems: Remplacement du R22: méthode de comparaison des frigorigènes candidats

This paper describes the development and application of a general purpose method for comparing alternative refrigerants. The method utilizes a single performance index based upon minimum cost for a simplified system operating with a given cooling capacity and efficiency. The cost-based method is an improvement over other methods for evaluating refrigerants in that it more appropriately considers the influence of both thermodynamic and transport properties on refrigerant choice and it allows consideration of additional costs associated with some replacements (e.g. safety features for flammable refrigerants). A computer model based upon this method was used to evaluate the performance of several leading R-22 replacement candidates for window air conditioners. Primarily, the cost differences between alternative refrigerants are associated with the heat exchangers and the refrigerant/oil requirements. The cost differences associated with different compressor displacement requirements were found to have a minor influence on overall cost differences. For the optimized systems, all of the alternatives had system costs that were within about 4% of those for R-22. Further, the differences between most of the alternative refrigerants were smaller than the uncertainties in the analysis.     

满液式蒸发器与干式蒸发器的区别

随着国家对节能产品的提倡,满液式机组也越来越受到欢迎。满液式机组与普通冷水机组的区别就在于蒸发器采用了满液式蒸发器,而普通冷水机组采用干式蒸发器。满液式蒸发器与干式蒸发器二者的明显区别在于制冷剂流程的不同,满液式蒸发器制冷剂走壳程,制冷剂从壳体下部进入,在传热管外流动并受热沸腾,蒸汽从壳体上部排出。干式蒸发器中制冷剂走管程,即制冷剂从端盖下部进入传热管束,在管内流动受热蒸发,蒸汽从端盖上部排出。     

一个冷水机组能效等级划分的设想——对GB 19577—2004修订的建议

从制(修)订标准的科学性、合理性及可操作性出发,参照相关国家和地区标准,根据中国冷水机组市场占有率,兼顾不同类型机组的技术特性,分析ASHRAE 90.1-2010对冷水机组的COP和IPLV限定值的要求,提出有关冷水机组能效等级划分的设想,希望能够为GB 19577—2004的修订提供借鉴。     

System options for cooling of buildings making use of district heating heat

Issues stemming from district heating utilization during summer periods and the conversion of low-temperature heat into cold in adsorption chillers have been investigated in this paper. Due to the high vulnerability of adsorption chillers to ambient conditions, in the case of relatively low ambient temperatures, adsorption-based air-conditioning systems would be characterized by excessive cooling power. Moreover, adsorption chillers are also characterized by high investment costs and big time constants, and the vulnerabilities found in their regulatory processes have yet to be sufficiently investigated. The authors recommend the application of hybrid air-conditioning systems, consisting of adsorption and compressor chillers. The adsorption chiller works as a base while the compressor chiller contributes missing cooling power, working as a regulation unit. Sixteen configurations of the hybrid air-conditioning system have been analysed. It has been shown that 100 kW cooling power hybrid air-conditioning system, with respect to its configuration, enables the utilization of 0.5 to 0.9 TJ of low-temperature heat per year, while simultaneously providing comfortable air-conditioning. The authors have concluded that the adsorption share in the analysed hybrid system should not exceed 50%.     

A vapour compression chiller fault detection technique based on adaptative algorithms. Application to on-line refrigerant leakage detection

The existence of faults in vapour compression chillers plays a significant role in terms of energy efficiency loss, performance degradations, and even environmental implications. In this paper, a dynamic model-based fault detection technique suitable for real-time implementation is proposed. The main objective is to obtain a reliable and automated tool for fault detection in vapour compression chillers, which can be applied in steady-state or transient operation. The fault detection methodology is based on comparing actual and expected performance using an adaptative model and operating variables dynamic thresholds. The technique has been successful applied for on-line refrigerant leakage detection with experimental tests involving the artificial introduction of the fault in a laboratory vapour compression plant, showing the results its capability of detecting incipient leakage failure conditions avoiding false alarms.     

Optimizing chiller operation based on finite-time thermodynamics: universal modeling and experimental confirmation

The efficiency of chillers (refrigeration and heat pump devices) is limited by the dissipation from their principal components: compressor, throttler, and heat exchangers at the condenser and evaporator. Developing a generalized finite-time thermodynamics model for reciprocating chhillers, we derive analytic formulae for how the fixed finite resources of cycle time and heat exchanger inventory should be allocated so as to optimize chiller performance. Our predictions for optimal operating schemes are compared with detailed experimental data from two different commercial chillers. The agreement between theory and actual performance data attests to the empirical wisdom that has evolved in chiller manufacture. Besides quantitatively documenting the individual sources of irreversibility, we show how the limitations of currently-available chiller components affect optimal chiller design, as well as how potentials steps to improve chiller efficiency can be evaluated within a universal thermodynamic framework.     

A comparison of refrigerants in a two-stage ejector-expansion transcritical refrigeration cycle based on exergoeconomic and environmental analysis

A comprehensive energy, exergy, exergoeconomic and environmental comparison between carbon dioxide, ethane and nitrous oxide as the refrigerants of a two-stage ejector-expansion transcritical refrigeration cycle is carried out. All of the obtained results are attained by optimizing COP subject to gas cooler and intercooler pressures in different values of gas cooler and evaporator temperatures. It is observed that the compressors operating pressure and temperature levels in the cycle for ethane are lower than other refrigerants, which leads to higher system safety and lifetime. Furthermore, the highest COP and exergy efficiency in a wide range of gas cooler temperature belongs to the ethane. The nitrous oxide refrigerant has the lowest product unit cost, which is about 4.2% lower than that of the ethane refrigerant with the highest product unit cost. Therefore, ethane is the most preferable refrigerant from energy and exergy aspects and nitrous oxide is suitable based on exergoeconomic viewpoint.     

Performance simulation of multi-bed silica gel-water adsorption chillers

Adsorption chiller technology is one of effective means to convert waste thermal energy into cooling, which substantially improves energy efficiency and lowers environmental pollution. This article develops an improved lumped-parameter model for multi-bed silica gel-water adsorption chillers. It is validated by experimental results stemming from a four-bed silica gel-water adsorption chiller at various operating conditions. It is found that the performance predictions from this model compare favourably with experimental results. At all tested conditions and over a wide range of cycle times, the cooling capacity and COP can be predicted to within 10% and 12%, respectively.     

船用水冷冷水机组的抗振设计

在船用水冷冷水机组的设计中,不仅要关注其性能,更应注重于其安全性、稳定性及维修的便捷性。本文从压缩机、系统管、海水冷凝器及其他部件的选型出发,结合框架的去谐设计和去耦设计,阐述船用冷水机组的抗振设计要求和方法;并对船用水冷冷水机组样机进行抗振试验,通过功能试验、耐振试验和随机振动试验检验其抗振性能。试验结果表明:该船用水冷冷水机组满足GJB150.16A—2009的抗振试验要求。