Flow injection analysis of nitrate-N determination in root vegetables: Study of the effects of cooking

Vegetables are the major vehicles for the entry of nitrate into the human system. Ever-increasing concern over nitrate toxicity has directed a number of countries to lay down maximum allowable threshold concentrations with regards to nitrate-N in vegetables. Fiji is an independent island nation, located in the southern Pacific Ocean, has a tropical oceanic climate and hence expected to have high nitrate-N levels in vegetables. Thus, the present study was devoted to establish a flow injection analysis (FIA) technique for nitrate-N determination in Fiji’s commonly consumed fresh and cooked root vegetables such as potato (Solanum tuberosum), dalo (Colocasia esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and carrot (Daucus carota L.). Activated carbon extraction technique was applied to extract nitrate-N. FIA with colorimetric detection technique having linear dynamic range of determination 1.0–20.0 mg L⁻¹ and detection limit of 0.042 mg L⁻¹ (0.34 mg kg⁻¹), using sulphanilamide and N-(1-naphthyl)ethylenediamine dihydrochloride as colour reagents, was used to determine nitrate-N contents in selected fresh and cooked root vegetables. The samples throughput was 38 h⁻¹. The effects of various cooking (boiling, baking and frying) methods on nitrate-N contents in root vegetables have also been studied. The study shows that the nitrate content of fresh root vegetables ranges from 53.76–258.00 mg kg⁻¹ whereas boiling reduces nitrate content by 23.30–42.62%. The frying in soya bean oil elevates nitrate contents from 204.53–299.12% but after baking nitrate contents remains almost constant with slight increasing trend from 2.80–8.43%. A comparison of the nitrate obtained by standardised method and the nitrate contents in vegetables of other countries are also presented.     

Nitrate-N determination in leafy vegetables: Study of the effects of cooking and freezing

Nitrate upon reduction to nitrite can cause methaemoglobinaemia or act as precursor in the endogenous formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines. The leafy vegetables are the major vehicle for the entry of nitrate into the human system. The present study was conducted to establish a flow injection analysis (FIA) technique to investigate the nitrate-N contents of four commonly consumed fresh leafy vegetables (Chinese cabbage, celery, lettuce and English cabbage) from market in Fiji. Two extraction techniques (activated carbon and alkaline extraction) were assessed to extract nitrate-N and the activated carbon extraction was preferred over alkaline extraction and applied. The recoveries of spiked nitrate-N in vegetable matrices ranged from 90.40% to 112.80% in activated carbon extraction with an average of 100.62%. The effects of cooking (boiling, baking and frying) and deep-freezing on the nitrate-N contents were also studied. Nitrate contents in selected leafy vegetables were determined by FIA coupled with Greiss protocol involving sulfanilamide and N-(1-naphthyl)ethylenediamine dihydrochloride as color reagents. Nitrate was determined in the linear range from 1.0 to 20.0 mg L⁻¹ with the method detection limit of 0.042 mg L⁻¹ (0.34 mg kg⁻¹). The results of the study show that nitrate contents in fresh leafy vegetables ranged from 1297 to 5658 mg kg⁻¹. Boiling reduces nitrate content by 47–56% whereas frying in Soya bean oil elevates nitrate content by as much as 159–307%. No significant change was observed in nitrate content after baking. The deep-freezing of the selected leafy vegetables shows that nitrate-N content fluctuates slightly from the original nitrate-N values over the seven day period. The FIA throughput was 38 samples h⁻¹.     

Influence of Cooking Methods on Antioxidant Activity of Vegetables

ABSTRACT:  The influence of home cooking methods (boiling, microwaving, pressure-cooking, griddling, frying, and baking) on the antioxidant activity of vegetables has been evaluated in 20 vegetables, using different antioxidant activity assays (lipoperoxyl and hydroxyl radicals scavenging and TEAC). Artichoke was the only vegetable that kept its very high scavenging-lipoperoxyl radical capacity in all the cooking methods. The highest losses of LOO· scavenging capacity were observed in cauliflower after boiling and microwaving, pea after boiling, and zucchini after boiling and frying. Beetroot, green bean, and garlic kept their antioxidant activity after most cooking treatments. Swiss chard and pepper lost OH· scavenging capacity in all the processes. Celery increased its antioxidant capacity in all the cooking methods, except boiling when it lost 14%. Analysis of the ABTS radical scavenging capacity of the different vegetables showed that the highest losses occurred in garlic with all the methods, except microwaving. Among the vegetables that increased their TEAC values were green bean, celery, and carrot after all cooking methods (except green bean after boiling). These 3 types of vegetables showed a low ABTS radical scavenging capacity. ccording to the method of analysis chosen, griddling, microwave cooking, and baking alternately produce the lowest losses, while pressure-cooking and boiling lead to the greatest losses; frying occupies an intermediate position. In short, water is not the cook's best friend when it comes to preparing vegetables.     

Nitrate and nitrite content in organically cultivated vegetables

The nitrate and nitrite content of leaf vegetables (Swiss chard, sea beet, spinach and cabbage), “inflorescence” vegetables (cauliflower) and fruit vegetables (eggplant and vegetable marrow) grown with organic fertilizers have been determined by a modified cadmium–Griess method. Samples were purchased from organic food stores as well as collected directly from an organic farm in Madrid (Spain). Nitrate levels were much higher in the leaf vegetables (especially Swiss chard species; average over the different samples and species of 2778.6 ± 1474.7 mg kg^{? 1}) than in inflorescence or fruit products (mean values between 50.2 ± 52.6 and 183.9 ± 233.6 mg kg^{? 1}). Following Swiss chard species, spinach (1349.8 ± 1045.5 mg kg^{? 1}) showed the highest nitrate content, and nitrite was found above the limit of detection in some samples only (spinach, 4.6 ± 1.0 mg kg^{? 1}; sea beet, 4.2 ± 0.7 mg kg^{? 1} and Swiss chard, 1.2 ± 0.4 mg kg^{? 1}). Some vegetables (spinach, cabbage and eggplant) had lower nitrate content in the samples harvested in summer, showing the influence of climatic conditions on the nitrate levels in a plant. The samples taken directly from the organic farm, with the exception of eggplant, had higher or slightly higher average nitrate values than samples purchased in the organic food stores, ranging from 117 to 1077%.     

元分析方法评估食品加工对果菜中农药残留的作用

本文采用元分析方法评估食品加工对果类蔬菜中农药残留作用。通过多个数据库文献搜索、数据采集、元分析统计计算,获得特定食品加工方式对果菜中农药残留作用的响应比值、实验间变异及置信区间,并对实验数据进行了同质性Q检验。结果显示研究所取数据具有同质性,自来水清洗、多种溶液清洗、去皮、水煮、清炒、漂烫、烘烤对果菜中农药作用的响应比值均小于0.6,说明食品加工对去除果菜中农药残留有较好作用,可达到40%以上;其中漂烫和烘烤的响应比值分别为0.04和0.01,农药去除效果极佳,可达到95%以上;与自来水清洗相比,乙酸溶液、氯化钠溶液、碳酸钠溶液、碳酸氢钠溶液清洗对农药去除均有较好的效果。元分析获得食品加工对果菜中农药残留作用的响应比值可作为加工因子用于食品安全风险评估中,并可指导果菜安全消费。     

不同利用方式对几种根茎类蔬菜亚硝酸盐含量的影响

以山药、胡萝卜、莲藕为实验材料,研究不同贮藏条件、烹饪方法和熟菜保存方式下3种根茎类蔬菜中亚硝酸盐含量的变化。结果表明：无论常温还是低温贮藏,贮藏7d内,3种根茎类蔬菜的亚硝酸盐含量均呈现先增加后降低的趋势,虽然常温贮藏的亚硝酸盐含量高于低温贮藏,但两者均小于4mg/kg。不同烹饪加工可显著降低3种蔬菜的亚硝酸盐含量,煮制、炒制、烤制加工方式的亚硝酸盐含量降幅分别为70%～83%、66%～80%和33%～55%,其中胡萝卜的亚硝酸含量降幅最大,莲藕的最小。低温和常温保存的熟菜,菜体中亚硝酸盐含量随时间延长而增加,保存到48h时,3种菜体的亚硝酸盐含量均小于4mg/kg,且低温远低于常温(前者最大为1.03mg/kg,后者最大为1.98mg/kg),参照食用的亚硝酸盐标准,低温(4℃)和常温(20℃)保存的熟制根茎类蔬菜食用安全期均达48h,且煮制和炒制加工的熟菜优于烤制。     

Nitrate and nitrite in fresh vegetables from queensland

Vegetables were collected near peak harvest from the main production regions in Queensland and were analysed for residues of nitrate and nitrite. A small sample of hydroponic produce was also included in the survey. Nitrite-N from 1 to 4 mg kg^-1 was found only in dwarf beans and in lettuces. Levels of nitrate in potatoes, cabbages and beets were higher than those reported in other surveys and exceeded threshold limits set in one other country. The median nitrate-N concentration measured in hydroponic lettuce (465 mg kg^-1 nitrate-N) was more than twice the median concentration for field-grown lettuce. Poor correlation between total N and nitrate in vegetables raises doubts about the use of total N alone as an indicator of N status.     

厦门市售蔬菜重金属、硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐污染研究及评价

为了解厦门市蔬菜中有害重金属、硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐的污染情况,于2004年8月至2005年12月从厦门市各超市、农贸市场、蔬菜批发市场和蔬菜产地上采集46个品种532份蔬菜样品,用国标法(GB/T5009.11-17-1996、GB/T5009.33-2003)分别分析蔬菜中的重金属、硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐的含量。结果表明,检测样品中Pb、Cd、As、Hg、硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐的平均值分别为0.0099、0.083、0.056、0.003、1090.3、0.59mg/kg;根据国家标准1-2,仅部分品种如菠菜、甘蓝、花菜、萝卜的铅超标,有潜在污染风险;大部分蔬菜中砷、汞、镉三种重金属的含量都较低,潜在的污染风险不大。硝酸盐污染程度严重的占36.5%;中、重度污染的占20.2%;轻度的占43.3%,硝酸盐含量依次为嫩茎叶菜类>根茎类>花菜类>瓜菜类>鲜豆菜>茄果类>水生蔬菜类,各样品间含量差别较大;而蔬菜中亚硝酸盐含量相对较低。     

Changes in nitrate and nitrite content of four vegetables during storage at refrigerated and ambient temperatures

The nitrate and nitrite contents of four kinds of vegetables (spinach, crown daisy, organic Chinese spinach and organic non-heading Chinese cabbage) in Taiwan were determined during storage at both refrigerated (5 ± 1°C) and ambient temperatures (22 ± 1°C) for 7 days. During storage at ambient temperature, nitrate levels in the vegetables dropped significantly from the third day while nitrite levels increased dramatically from the fourth day of storage. However, refrigerated storage did not lead to changes in nitrate and nitrite levels in the vegetables over 7 days.     

A survey of nitrate and oxalate content in fresh vegetables

A survey of nitrate and oxalate ((COO⁻)₂) content in fresh vegetables was conducted in Bari (Italy) over 15 months (from March 1994 to May 1995). A total of 327 samples (edible portions and related sub-samples) were taken from 26 different vegetable types on the wholesale fruit and vegetable market. The data revealed that leaf vegetables (namely rocket, celery, parsley and spinach) contained higher levels of nitrate than bulb, root, shoot, inflorescence and tuber vegetables. Higher oxalate levels were found in spinach and Swiss chard. Based on consumption data for the whole population provided by the National Institute of Nutrition, daily nitrate intake from vegetables was calculated to be 71 mg. Over 30% of nitrate intake was derived from the consumption of lettuce and Swiss chard. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

HPCE法同时检测果蔬及肉制品中硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐含量

为了能够同时、快速检测果蔬及肉制品中的硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐,利用高效毛细管电泳对其进行检测,重点研究检测条件的筛选和干扰离子的排除。使用内径50?μm、总长40?cm、有效长度30?cm的毛细管柱,在214?nm条件下,采用毛细管区带电泳-直接紫外法,研究分离缓冲液的pH值、浓度、电渗流改性剂十六烷基三甲基溴化铵的添加量、排除Cl－干扰方式以及分离电压对分离效果的影响,同时进行方法学检验,以确定其回收率、线性、检出限和精密度。结果表明：对于含盐量500?mmol/L以下的样品在6?min内NO3－和NO2－能够达到很好分离,该方法的加标回收率在81.82%～100.91%之间,线性范围较宽,相关系数均在0.99以上,检出限分别为0.69?μg/mL和0.50?μg/mL,精密度均不高于3.2%,具有简便、快速、准确、环保等优点,也为生产中快速监控硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐残留量提供了科学依据。     

Effect of different cooking methods on the antioxidant activity of some vegetables from Pakistan

The effects of different cooking methods (boiling, frying and microwave cooking) on the antioxidant activity of some selected vegetables (peas, carrot, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, yellow turnip and white turnip) were assessed by measuring the total phenolic contents (TPC), reducing power and percentage inhibition in linoleic acid system. TPC (gallic acid equivalents g/100 g of dry weight) and reducing power of the methanolic extracts of raw‐, microwaved‐, boiled‐ and fried vegetables ranged 0.333–2.97, 0.52–2.68, 0.48–2.08, 1.00–2.02 and 0.391–2.24, 0.822–1.10, 0.547–1.16, 0.910–4.07, respectively. The level of inhibition of peroxidation ranged 71.4–89.0, 66.4–87.3, 73.2–89.2 and 77.4–91.3%, respectively. Antioxidant activity of the vegetables examined was appreciably affected because of varying cooking treatments. TPC of vegetables, generally, decreased by boiling, frying and microwave cooking. There was a significant (P < 0.05) increase in reducing power as a result of frying. However, boiling and microwave cooking did not affect reducing power. Inhibition of peroxidation increased by boiling and frying, whereas, in contrast it was decreased by microwave cooking. The results of the present investigation showed that all the cooking methods affected the antioxidant properties of the vegetables; however, microwave treatment exhibited more deleterious effects when compared with those of other treatments. Thus an appropriate method might be sought for the processing of such vegetables to retain their antioxidant components at maximum level.     

烹饪过程对空心菜和卷心菜硝酸盐潜在安全风险的影响

研究4种烹饪（油炒、汽蒸、微波和水煮）过程对空心菜和卷心菜中硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐和抗氧化能力的影响,并通过抗氧化性/体内亚硝酸盐比（antioxidant/in vivo nitrite ratio,A/N）值评价其硝酸盐潜在安全风险。结果表明,油炒会同时提升叶类蔬菜的硝酸盐含量（28.03%～49.57%）和铁离子还原能力（108.88%～218.35%）,而水煮则相反。微波和汽蒸在降低蔬菜硝酸盐含量（31.25%～46.61%）的同时提升铁离子还原能力（76.35%～112.99%）。基于可食用性和A/N值评价结果,在烹饪2 min内空心菜和卷心菜分别选择水煮和油炒烹饪对硝酸盐潜在安全风险的控制效果更好。微波是两种叶类蔬菜相对安全的烹饪方式,但不宜超过4 min,而汽蒸更适宜长时间烹饪（>4 min）。     

Cellulose, Hemicellulose and Lignin Content of Raw and Cooked Processed Vegetables

The NDF, ADF, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contents of five frozen vegetables (raw and boiled) and five canned vegetables (two of them fried) have been studied. In general, it was observed that boiling resulted in an increase in the NDF, ADF and cellulose content. There was also a slight increase in hemicellulose values. The lignin contents of most vegetables did not change upon boiling. When the cooking process was frying, a drastic decrease of NDF, ADF, cellulose, and lignin contents occurred, while the amount of hemicellulose changed slightly in the vegetables analyzed.     

Dietary exposure of Hong Kong adults to nitrate and nitrite from vegetable intake

The aim of this study was to assess the dietary exposure of adults in Hong Kong to nitrate and nitrite from vegetables. If all vegetables consumed were raw, the dietary exposure to nitrate for average consumers was estimated to be 4.4?mg?kg^?1 body weight (bw)?day^?1 and, for high consumers, was estimated to be 13?mg?kg^?1?bw?day^?1, which is about 120 and 350% of acceptable daily intake (ADI), respectively. If all vegetables consumed were cooked, the dietary exposure to nitrate from vegetables for the average adult consumer was estimated to be 3.5?mg?kg^?1?bw?day^?1 and, for high consumer, was estimated to be 10?mg?kg^?1?bw?day^?1, which is about 95 and 270% of ADI, respectively. On the other hand, the dietary exposure to nitrite from vegetables for average and high consumers were well below the ADI.     

Alterations in phenolic compound levels and antioxidant activity in response to cooking technique effects: A meta-analytic investigation

The aim of this study was to review prior studies that have evaluated the effects of cooking techniques on polyphenol levels and antioxidant activity in vegetables and to release a meta-analysis of the findings. Meta-analysis with a random effect model was conducted using the weighted response ratios (R*) that were calculated for each experiment. Baking (R* = 0.51), blanching (R* = 0.94), boiling (R* = 0.62), microwaving (R* = 0.54) and pressure cooking (R* = 0.47) techniques precipitated significant reductions in the polyphenol levels. Significant decreases in the antioxidant activity levels were noted after baking (R* = 0.45) and boiling (R* = 0.76), while significant increases were observed after frying (R* = 2.26) and steaming (R* = 1.52).     

快速检测技术在果蔬安全控制中的研究进展

近年来人们对果蔬及其产品的需求逐渐增加,随着生产、加工、销售规模的不断扩大,其产生的食品安全问题成为了人们普遍关注的焦点之一。本文阐述了果蔬在生产、流通等各环节中主要安全风险的来源,包括有机磷和氨基甲酸酯类农药残留、硝酸盐及亚硝酸盐等无机化合物超标、果蔬中有害微生物污染、病原菌毒素积累等,并对果蔬安全检测中快速检测技术(快检技术)的研究进展进行了综述,包括酶抑制法、酶联免疫法、传感器法、拉曼光谱检测法、试纸法、聚合酶链式反应法等。快检技术推进了果蔬安全检测的规范化和标准化,成为执法监管的重要依托,促进了果蔬产业安全持续的发展。     

不同处理对数种果蔬抗氧化活性稳定性的影响

将市面上常见的9种果蔬经过加热、干制、盐腌制及加酸等不同处理,以β-胡萝卜素溶液褪色法测定样品在处理前后的抗氧化活性,以探讨不同处理对果蔬抗氧化活性的影响。结果表明:经过四种加热方法处理和干制后,紫包菜、紫菜心、乌榄3种含花青素类样品的抗氧化活性低于处理前,而包菜、苹果的抗氧化活性高于处理前,其中蒸煮与微波加热处理后的抗氧化活性提高程度较其余两种加热方法高;经过盐腌制处理后的抗氧化活性变化依样品不同而略有提高或降低,变化幅度在4%～7%的范围内;包菜汁添加5种酸后的抗氧化活性均增大,但增大程度根据酸的种类不同而有差异。     

Enhanced bioaccessibility of β‐carotene from yellow‐orange vegetables and green leafy vegetables by domestic heat processing

Effect of heat treatment involved in domestic cooking on the bioaccessibility of β‐carotene from yellow‐orange as well as green leafy vegetables was evaluated. Heat treatment of these vegetables by pressure‐cooking, stir‐frying and open‐pan boiling had a beneficial influence on the bioaccessibility of β‐carotene. The extent of increase in the per cent bioaccessibility of β‐carotene as a result of pressure‐cooking was 21–84%. Stir‐frying in presence of a small quantity of oil brought about an enormous increase in the bioaccessibility of β‐carotene from these vegetables, the extent of increase being 67–191%. Open‐pan boiling of vegetables increased the bioaccessibility of β‐carotene in the range 23–36%. Thus, among the three domestic heat processing methods, stir‐frying results in maximum bioaccessibility of this provitamin. The use of suitably heat‐processed vegetable sources of β‐carotene could form a dietary strategy to derive this micronutrient maximally by the population dependent on plant foods.     

HACCP在果蔬肉脯加工工艺中的应用

果蔬肉脯是一种将水果、蔬菜与传统肉脯相结合,意在改变传统肉脯高脂肪、低膳食纤维的不足。为提高果蔬肉脯的生产管理水平,控制产品的质量,增强产品的安全性,本文应用HACCP原理对果蔬肉脯加工过程进行危害分析并确定关键控制点。结果表明原料肉验收、硝酸盐的添加、烘烤、金属探测为关键控制点。并据此建立了相应的预防和监控措施。