The study of chip characteristics and tool wear in milling of SKD61 mold steel

In recent years, many machining applications have used dry cutting for high-speed cutting, for which, tool life prediction and research are important issues. In this study, a tungsten carbide tool cutting steel SKD61 was used, and the actual value of the chip shooting and the wear of the flank were determined using an industrial camera. The chip type and chip color are also discussed. After color calibration and chromaticity conversion, the model was trained through the neural network and the results were predicted. The tool wear curve and the theoretical curve were found to be closely related, and the chip color changed regularly. In the CIE XY chromaticity coordinate value, when the initial cutting was observed, the chip chromaticity coordinate point range was small, but as the wear amount increased, the chip chromaticity coordinate point range expanded gradually. The tool wear prediction established in this study was determined from the experimental results. The maximum errors of the test and verification were 0.031 mm and 0.022 mm. After calculation, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) was within 3 % and the accuracy level is MAPE is less than 10 %, so it has a high accurate prediction ability. Established tool wear predictions are also provided.

     

Thermally induced volumetric error modeling based on thermal drift and its compensation in Z-axis

Traditional thermally induced volumetric error modeling requires 21 geometric error components at different temperatures. Taking thermal drift errors into account, 30 geometric errors are described to model volumetric error in this paper. The main sources of thermally induced volumetric error are positioning errors of each axis and thermal drift errors. An experiment on milling and boring machine is carried out, which shows that volumetric error in Z-axis is affected significantly. To compensate volumetric error of Z-axis, a model of positioning error is proposed based on nut temperature. A finite elements analysis of headstock thermal characteristic is carried out, and error chain is established, which shows the main source of thermal drift of Z-axis is ram expansion. Thermal drift compensation system of Z-axis is developed based on Invar metal and thermal error compensation module of Siemens CNC system. Therefore, the positioning error and thermal drift of Z-axis are compensated. The thermally induced volumetric error in Z-axis is reduced by 80 % after compensation.     

Calibration-based thermal error model for articulated arm coordinate measuring machines

The influence of thermal changes in the accuracy of articulated arm coordinate measuring machines (AACMMs) is one of their main error sources. Usually, the effects of this problem are minimized by using low thermal-expansion materials in the arm design or by implementing an empirical error correction model based on the outputs of several temperature sensors placed inside the arm. These models, inherited from temperature correction models for robot arms, are based on the empirical arm positioning error characterization of several temperatures inside its measuring range and by posterior corrections implemented using an average error approximation. Considering this approximation as a correction valid for all the temperature range violates the AACMM calibration conditions, which are defined by a kinematic parameter identification procedure at 20 °C. This implies that, by applying these models, the AACMM will work outside of calibration conditions and will not meet the nominal accuracy values obtained from the identification procedure. In this work a new empirical correction model for thermal errors is presented. This model keeps the calibration conditions established in the parameters identification procedure unaltered. This fact makes it possible to apply other correction models for geometric and non-geometric errors obtained at the calibration temperature after having applied the temperature correction. The algorithm and objective functions used, which are based on a new approach including terms regarding measurement accuracy and repeatability and using the measurements of a ball-beam gauge artifact are shown. The empirical correction model and the arm accuracy and repeatability results before and after correction are also explained, showing an important accuracy improvement in the arm performance for typical arm operation at temperatures different from 20 °C.     

手持式激光光色性能测量系统实现及误差分析

鉴于激光波长相对固定的特性,采用一种新的测量激光光色性能测量方法,设计出基于单片机的手持式高精度激光光色性能测量系统。该系统可实现不同波长激光光色性能测量,通过系统初始化时波长输入来提取相应光谱三刺激值,而后进行参数计算。对测量系统进行了实验误差分析,由系统验证结果及误差分析表明,该系统可实现低成本制作,所述测量原理能完成对色空间坐标、光照度、色温等光色性能参数的高精度测量。     

大视场相机最优投影模型识别及星光标定方法

针对在轨摄影测量中近距离大尺寸测量需求,提出利用星光约束的大视场角摄影测量相机最优投影模型识别及标定方法。首先,构建了具备调节系数的星光几何投影分段函数模型。随后,针对分段星光投影模型开发多站位自标定光束平差算法。通过将光束平差算法与北方苍鹰寻优策略相结合,对投影模型调节系数、相机内方位参数、相机外方位参数及镜头畸变系数同步优化,直到星点像面重投影均方根误差达到全局最小,得到最优投影模型及其参数。实测实验表明,大视场角相机星光标定后,星点像面坐标的重投影均方根误差为1/9 pixel。在连续帧星光标定实验中,通过卡尔曼滤波算法对相机参数随机误差进行了有效消除。该方法可在相机星光标定过程中识别最优投影模型并标定全部成像参数,具备连续帧标定及参数校准能力。     

DLP投影机拼接显示的基色坐标校正

从色度学原理出发分析了多台DLP投影机拼接显示的颜色再现原理,其均匀性是由基色坐标和亮度共同决定的。传统颜色均匀性调节中只通过调节基色亮度的方法不能从根本上消除色差。提出了一种新的校正颜色均匀性的方法,即采取缩小色空间的方法得到公共的色三角形,作为校正的目标色空间,并建立了每台投影机到新的颜色空间的转换矩阵,从而实现基色调整的目的。再结合基色亮度的调节,可以从理论上完全消除色差。     

Color Correction in Multiple Generation Reproduction Using Digital Watermarking

In most existing color reproduction systems, color correction is performed in an open-looped fashion.For multiple generation color copying, color fidelity cannot be guaranteed as the errors introduced in color correction may accumulate. A method of solving the error accumulation problem by embedding color information as invisible digital watermark in hardcopies is proposed. When the hardcopy is scanned, the embedded information can be retrieved to provide real-time calibration. As the method is close-looped in nature, it may reduce error accumulation and improve color fidelity, particularly when copies go through multiple generation reproduction.     

基于两步修正法的 MEMS 三轴陀螺仪标定方法

针对目前三轴陀螺仪标定存在依赖于昂贵的转台设备或标定参数不完全的问题,本文提出了一种了基于两步修正法的MEMS三轴陀螺仪标定方法。该方法首先使用六位置法对加速度计12参数模型、三轴陀螺仪比例因子、三轴陀螺仪静态零偏进行标定补偿,然后对三轴陀螺仪非正交误差模型建模,进行系统级标定。两步修正法可实现在无精密设备条件下快速准确的对各项误差进行辨识,获得良好的标定效果。仿真实验表明,本文算法所获得的非正交误差均值接近1%,标准差小于0.1%;比例因子误差均值小于0.14%,标准差小于0.004%,且具有很好的一致性。实际实验表明,65 s纯惯性导航姿态更新结果中,该标定方法的俯仰角误差精度可以达到0.624°,横滚角误差精度可以达到0.67°。     

Influence of position-dependent geometric errors of rotary axes on a machining test of cone frustum by five-axis machine tools

A machining test of cone frustum, described in NAS (National Aerospace Standard) 979, is widely accepted by machine tool builders to evaluate the machining performance of five-axis machine tools. This paper discusses the influence of various error motions of rotary axes on a five-axis machine tool on the machining geometric accuracy of cone frustum machined by this test. Position-independent geometric errors, or location errors, associated with rotary axes, such as the squareness error of a rotary axis and a linear axis, can be seen as the most fundamental errors in five-axis kinematics. More complex errors, such as the deformation caused by the gravity, the pure radial error motion of a rotary axis, the angular positioning error of a rotary axis, can be modeled as position-dependent geometric errors of a rotary axis. This paper first describes a kinematic model of a five-axis machine tool under position-independent and position-dependent geometric errors associated with rotary axes. The influence of each error on machining geometric accuracy of a cone frustum is simulated by using this model. From these simulations, we show that some critical errors associated with a rotary axis impose no or negligibly small effect on the machining error. An experimental case study is presented to demonstrate the application of R-test to measure the enlargement of a periodic radial error motion of C-axis with B-axis rotation, which is shown by present numerical simulations to be among potentially critical error factors for cone frustum machining test.     

IMU 姿态误差均衡校正模型与验证

惯性姿态测量单元(IMU)中存在各种系统误差,需要进行校正以提高姿态解算精度,而校正矩阵是由本身包含各种系统误差的特殊位置测量值及其理论值决定的。对校正矩阵产生的校正误差进行理论推导,研究其对解算姿态参数误差的影响特征,并用测试数据进行验证。根据均衡校正点的设计,详细研究均衡校正及其结构拓扑对姿态精度的影响模型和特征,并对测试数据进行均衡校正验证,典型姿态解算结果及对比表明,均衡校正普遍降低了姿态的绝对误差,均衡平均校正最少可降低解算姿态绝对误差的平均值和峰峰值至30.8%,且在小倾斜角区域也达到大中倾斜角区域常规校正的姿态解算精度。     

考虑基坐标系误差的机器人运动学标定方法

提出了一种基于机器人几何参数误差与基坐标系位姿误差的六轴串联型机器人误差标定方法.首先基于MD-H方法建立了IRB6700机器人几何参数误差模型,得到机器人连杆几何参数误差到机器人末端位姿误差的映射关系;然后进一步考虑了基坐标系的位姿误差,并建立了考虑基坐标系误差的机器人误差模型;此外,针对传统标定方法操作繁琐、偶然误...     

Digital twin-based analysis of volumetric error mapping procedures

The evaluation of the volumetric accuracy of a machine tool is an open challenge in the industry, and a wide variety of technical solutions are available in the market and at research level. All solutions have advantages and disadvantages concerning which errors can be measured, the achievable uncertainty, the ease of implementation, possibility of machine integration and automation, the equipment cost and the machine occupation time, and it is not always straightforward which option to choose for each application. The need to ensure accuracy during the whole lifetime of the machine and the availability of monitoring systems developed following the Industry 4.0 trend are pushing the development of measurement systems that can be integrated in the machine to perform semi-automatic verification procedures that can be performed frequently by the machine user to monitor the condition of the machine. Calibrated artefact based calibration and verification solutions have an advantage in this field over laser based solutions in terms of cost and feasibility of machine integration, but they need to be optimized for each machine and customer requirements to achieve the required calibration uncertainty and minimize machine occupation time.This paper introduces a digital twin-based methodology to simulate all relevant effects in an artefact-based machine tool calibration procedure, from the machine itself with its expected error ranges, to the artefact geometry and uncertainty, artefact positions in the workspace, probe uncertainty, compensation model, etc. By parameterizing all relevant variables in the design of the calibration procedure, this simulation methodology can be used to analyse the effect of each design variable on the error mapping uncertainty, which is of great help in adapting the procedure to each specific machine and user requirements. The simulation methodology and the analysis possibilities are illustrated by applying it on a 3-axis milling machine tool.     

三点法中测头角位置的精密测量方法

研究了三点法圆度及轴系误差测量中测头角位置的精密测量方法。设计了能直接测量非接触电容传感器测头实测状态下的角位置的测角系统,提出了克服测头角位置测量误差及三个测头灵敏度标定误差影响的校正方法。实验表明：采用本文提出的“多刻线”法测角精度优于1′,测头角位置测量误差及三个测头灵敏度标定误差对测量精度的影响可降致最小。     

Calibration of a 3D-ball plate

The presented 3D-ball plate is used for testing machine tools with a workspace of 500 mm × 500 mm × 320 mm. The artefact consists of a 2D-ball plate which is either located by a kinematic correct coupling on a base plate or on a spacer. The spacers are placed between the base plate and the ball plate and are also kinematic coupled to the other elements of the artefact. The kinematic couplings provide a high repeatability of the measurement setup. Because of the specific application the known calibration procedures for 2D-ball plates are not applicable.A calibration method for the pseudo-3D-artefact on a coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is presented, with the aim to minimise the influence of geometric CMM errors. Therefore a computer simulation is used to analyse the effects of these disturbing errors on the calibration of the ball plate and the spacers. Using a reversal method, the plate is measured at four different horizontal positions after rotating the ball plate around its vertical axis. A couple of the CMM errors, e.g., a squareness error C0Y between the X- and Y-axis of the CMM, can be eliminated by that method—others have to be determined with additional measurements, e.g., the positioning errors EXX or EYY of the X- and Y-axis, respectively. The paper also contains a measurement uncertainty estimation for the calibration by use of experiments, tolerances and Monte Carlo-simulations. The achieved uncertainty for ball positions in the working volume is less than 2.1 μm (coverage factor k = 2).     

CIE色度空间的控件实现

介绍色度学中三个重要的色度空间——CIE1931、CIE1960、CIE1976色度系统,及三个色度系统间色品坐标的转换方法。讨论CIEXYZ系统向RGB系统的转换算法。利用VC6.0集成开发环境编写实现CIE1931、CIE1960、CIE1976色度系统及其色品坐标转换的控件,提供简单的接口。用户利用待测颜色的光谱三刺激值调用该接口,即可快速地获得该颜色在不同色度空间的色品图中的位置及相应的色品坐标。     

Offline and online strategies to improve pose accuracy of a Stewart Platform using indoor-GPS

The pose accuracy of a robot manipulator may be improved by assessing and correcting systematic errors. Both offline and online strategies can be considered. To date, there has not been a solution for the online pose error correction of parallel manipulators. Moreover, offline strategies using indoor-GPS as reference measurement system have not yet been investigated. In this paper an optimization-based kinematic calibration method and an online correction technique are proposed and implemented for a low-cost Stewart Platform. In both cases, an indoor-GPS system was used as reference measurement equipment. Performance of both strategies are compared to a kinematic calibration method based on direct parameter measurement. Pose errors are evaluated for each strategy using a robotic total station. Performance of the optimization-based calibration and the online correction technique were similar and better than the direct parameter measurement calibration. Both techniques resulted in average pose errors less or equal to 0.3 mm and 0.05°. The proposed strategies may be adapted to other similar parallel manipulators and are applicable to large sized equipment.     

A comprehensive method for calibration of volumetric positioning accuracy of CNC-machines

A comprehensive method for measuring the systematic errors of CNC-machine tools has been studied. The method used for measurement and calibration of machine tool errors should be general and efficient. The objectives of this study include:

三轴数控铣床切削力引起的误差综合运动学建模

使用齐次坐标变换的方法建立了三轴数控铣床的切削力误差综合数学模型。首先基于三轴数控铣床的结构分析对切削力误差元素进行识别,然后在机床各运动部件上建立一系列坐标系并推导出各相邻坐标系间的齐次坐标变换矩阵,最后根据切削加工中刀具切削点与工件正被切削点在基坐标系中的坐标值相同列出等式,推导出切削力误差综合模型。该模型包含30个对机床加工精度影响较大的切削力误差元素,适用于计算误差补偿时的补偿量。
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基于单目摄像机的光学立体标定技术

为了构建一种基于单摄像机的三维视觉系统,提出了重构光学标定点三维坐标、计算重构误差和优化标定参数的方法。通过移动高精度位移平台,构建三维视觉系统,计算左右摄像机位的初始参数,引入质心坐标法计算两摄像机位间的旋转平移矩阵,利用最优三角剖分法重构光学标定点的三维坐标,计算并最小化重构误差,对标定参数进行优化。实验表明：重构误差直接反映了三维重建的效率,该方法的精度和鲁棒性得到了显著的提高;实物外形测量的误差从0.1123 mm减小到0.0191 mm,标准差从0.1838减小到0.1275。该方法适合应用于三维视觉系统标定质量的评估。     

Accurate Calibration of Mercury Vapour Indicators for Occupational Exposure Measurements using a Dynamic Mercury Vapour Generator

Abstract

An accurate and rapid calibration procedure for mercury vapour indicators used for occupational exposure measurements is described, using a dynamic mercury vapour generator traceable to the standard bell-jar calibration apparatus. The method provides greater flexibility, accuracy, and trace ability than the usual methods for the calibration of mercury vapour indicators used for occupational exposure measurements. The calibration procedure allows a correction to be applied to the mass concentration value displayed by the mercury vapour indicator. Measurement results from the mercury vapour indicator at the occupational exposure limit of 25 µg ·m^?3, following calibration, have been estimated to have an expanded uncertainty of 8%.