Engineering geological appraisal of the Sulakyurt dam site,Turkey

This paper discusses the engineering geological investigations, diversion tunnel support design and slope stability assessment studies carried out at the Sulakyurt dam site, northeast of Ankara, Turkey. The Sulakyurt dam will be used for flood flow control and water storage for irrigation. Engineering geological mapping, discontinuity surveys, core drilling, water absorption and laboratory tests were undertaken. The RMR, Q and GSI approaches were used to estimate the rock mass quality, site characteristics, rock mass parameters and appropriate tunnel support elements. The results of kinematic and limit equilibrium analyses for the slopes on the right and left banks are reported.      

Effect of rock mass quality on construction time in a road tunnel

On the basis of the existing NTNU (Norwegian University of Science and Technology) advance rate model and field experiences, an estimation model which can analyze construction time for a broad range of works related to tunnel construction by drill and blast has been established. The model includes the time spent for excavation, rock support, various installations in the tunnel, and site preparation. The model is developed as a spreadsheet. Furthermore, by the use of the model, analyses on various effects of rock mass quality on construction time and advance rate for four Q-values of 0.01, 0.1, 1.0 and 10.0 on seven sizes of road tunnels applied in Norway were made. The results show that construction time increases up to 30–40% with cross sectional area varying from T5 (35.2 m²) to T12 (86.9 m²) under the assumption that the same Q-value is applicable to the entire tunnel length. Standard advance rate considering the effect of rock mass quality may be about 50% lower for Q = 0.01 than in the case of not considering the same effect in a 3 km tunnel. The gap between the two standard advance rates is gradually decreasing with increased Q-value.     

Some new Q-value correlations to assist in site characterisation and tunnel design

The rock mass quality Q-value was originally developed to assist in the empirical design of tunnel and cavern reinforcement and support, but it has been used for several other tasks in rock engineering in recent years. This paper explores the application of Q and its six component parameters, for prediction, correlation and extrapolation of site investigation data, and for obtaining first estimates of some input data for both jointed distinct element and continuum-approximation modelling. Parameters explored here include P-wave velocity, static modulus of deformation, support pressure, tunnel deformation, Lugeon-value, and the possible cohesive and frictional strength of rock masses, undisturbed, or as affected by underground excavation. The effect of depth or stress level, and anisotropic strength, structure and stress are each addressed, and practical solutions suggested. The paper concludes with an evaluation of the potential improvements in rock mass properties and reduced support needs that can be expected from state-of-the-art pre-injection with fine, cementicious multi-grouts, based on measurements of permeability tensor principal value rotations and reductions, caused by grout penetration of the least favourable joint sets. Several slightly improved Q-parameter ratings form the basis of the predicted improvements in general rock mass properties that can be achieved by pre-grouting.     

Geotechnical investigations and preliminary support design for the Geçilmez tunnel: A case study along the Black Sea coastal highway,Giresun, northern Turkey

This study encompasses geotechnical investigations, stability assessments and design of the preliminary support systems for the Geçilmez tunnel which is constructed in Giresun for the improvement of the highway along the Black Sea coast. During the study, a detailed geological map of the study area was prepared and the geotechnical characteristics of the rock masses were determined. The rock mass classification of the tunnel grounds was performed by utilizing the RMR method, Q system, NATM and the Geological Strength Index (GSI) classification which was followed by performing a geotechnical investigation along the tunnel grounds in order to obtain the geotechnical parameters for the stability analyses of the portals and of the tunnel. Lugeon (water pressure) tests were performed in order to determine the permeability of the rock mass along the tunnel. The appropriate geotechnical parameters were utilized in order to perform rock slope stability kinematic and limit equilibrium analyses at the portals of the tunnel. Empirical preliminary tunnel support systems according to the RMR method, Q-system and NATM were determined. The structurally controlled instabilities within the tunnel sections were identified and the required preliminary tunnel support systems were determined to overcome these instabilities. Regarding the structurally controlled rock failures along the probable weak zones and lineaments (i.e., inactive probable faults or shear zones) during tunneling, wedge stability analysis was utilized to determine the potential wedge failures that could possibly occur during tunneling and to apply the necessary support systems for stabilizing any wedge failure in the tunnel. The induced stress distributions and deformations in the rock mass surrounding the tunnel grounds was investigated and the interaction of the support systems with the rock mass was analyzed by using numerical (finite element) modeling. In the finite element analyses it was assumed that the rock mass behaved as a fractured rock mass since the tunnel grounds were moderate to highly jointed. The objective of the numerical modeling was to check the validity of the empirical preliminary tunnel support requirements and also to compare the results with those obtained through assuming structurally controlled failures during tunneling. The performance of the preliminary tunnel support was also validated on the basis of thrust–moment interaction analyses. The results of the structurally controlled failure analyses, numerical analyses and thrust–moment analyses were compared in an attempt to determine the preliminary tunnel support systems to stabilize the Geçilmez tunnel.     

Estimation of bearing capacity of basalts at the Atasu dam site,Turkey

This paper describes the results of the engineering geological investigations and bearing capacity studies carried out at the proposed site of the rock fill Atasu Dam, to be constructed on basalts and pyroclastics. Rock mass strength and modulus of elasticity of the rock mass were determined using the Hoek–Brown empirical strength criterion. Rock mass classifications for the dam rock foundation were undertaken following the RMR, Q and GSI systems and the stress distributions using the finite element technique. To estimate the bearing capacity of the basalts, different empirical equations were used and compared.      

A geo-engineering classification for rocks and rock masses

In this article, an attempt is made to assess the reliability of predicting the uniaxial compressive strength and the corresponding modulus of a rock mass by current approaches. These two basic engineering properties, when estimated from rock mass rating (RMR), Q and geological strength index (GSI), indicate hardly any change in the modulus ratio with the change in the quality of the rock mass from very good to very poor. However, the modulus ratio obtained from the relations involving the joint factor, J_f, indicate a definite decrease in the modulus ratio with a decrease in the quality of the rock mass. The strength and modulus in the unconfined and confined states, the modulus ratio and failure strain in the unconfined case were linked to J_f in earlier publications based on a large experimental database. Some of these relations were adopted to verify the response of jointed test specimens, the response of the rock mass during excavations for mining and civil underground chambers, in establishing ground reaction curves including the extent of the broken zone, and the bearing capacity of shallow foundations.The joint factor is now linked to RMR, Q and GSI. The prediction of compressive strength and modulus of the rock mass appears to be more suitable. For classifying the rock, based on these properties, the Deere and Miller engineering classification, applicable to intact rocks, has been suitably modified and adopted. The results of different modes of failure of jointed specimens establish definite trends of changes in the modulus ratio originating from the intact rock value on the modified Deere and Miller plot. A geo-engineering classification is evolved by considering strength, modulus, quantifiable weathering index and lithological aspects of the rock.     

Application of RMR and Q geomechanical classification systems along the proposed Mujib Tunnel route, central Jordan

This paper highlights the engineering geological investigations that have been carried out along the proposed Mujib Tunnel. The geomechanical classifications – rock mass rating (RMR) and Q index for tunnelling purposes – have been used to categorize the rock mass along the proposed tunnel. This tunnel will be driven into the Cambrian Sandstones (Um Ishrin Sandstone Formation) which are characterized by two to three sets of structural discontinuities. The geotechnical information obtained from drilled boreholes as well as from surface discontinuity mapping using scanline techniques indicates fractured sandstone along the proposed tunnel. This would be classified as very poor to fair quality material using the Q indexand RMR values. An expert system was used to obtain the design parameters of the proposed tunnel and to determine the support requirements. Electronic Publication     

Support design of underground openings in an asphaltite mine

A detailed study to design support systems for underground openings was carried out in this paper. Asphaltite, an energy source for thermal power plants, will be produced from the Uckardesler Asphaltite Vein in southwestern Turkey. This mine will be the first application of underground asphaltite production in the world. Two main geological formations, the Gercus formation and the Midyat formation, form the geological structure of the study area. The Gercus formation is conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone, clay, detritus, such as jibs, and the asphaltite vein located in the formation. The Midyat formation is mostly limestone. The cut and fill stoping method was selected for this mine in accordance with the geometry of the vein, topographic specifications, and expected annual production rates. Asphaltite will be excavated from the underground mine by continuous miners. The shapes and sizes of underground opening, which will include incline and ramp galleries, shafts, crosscut (X/C) galleries, main level galleries, and production galleries, were designed based on production method and rate. Rock mass classification systems and the finite element numerical method were applied to design support systems for the proposed underground openings. In this study, the engineering properties of rock masses were defined from field and laboratory studies for each formation and for asphaltite. Support systems for each underground opening were designed based on the suggestions of the rock mass rating (RMR) system and the Q system of rock mass classification. The suggested support systems were subjected to numerical analysis in order to evaluate their predicted performance. The results of the numerical modeling were analyzed to select the proper support system for each underground opening.     

The correlation between RMR and Q systems in parts of Iran

One of the approaches for characterising rock masses with discontinuities due to the presence of engineered designs is to use rock mass classification. Thus far, many classification systems, including RMR, Q, and GSI, have been proposed in the literature. Their parameters are based on site investigations, such as surface/subsurface fracture studies and well coring, as well as laboratory experiments. When sufficient information is not available, the utilisation of several rock mass classification systems is useful to compile a more complete understanding of the composition and characteristics of a rock mass. Thus, many correlations have been drawn to relate different systems, especially between RMR and Q systems. In this study, the best correlation coefficient between RMR and Q systems was determined with the aim of suggesting a new potential correlation for various geotechnical activities in parts of Iran. To accomplish this aim, rock mass parameters for the RMR and Q systems were assessed by considering their values separately for more than 800 stations at 14 different sites and applying statistical procedures to the data. Finally, a new correlation was determined.     

A 3D synthetic rock mass numerical method for characterizations of rock mass and excavation damage zone near tunnels

In practice, a damage zone is generally formed after tunnel excavation in jointed rock mass. This damage zone is closely related to rock mass properties and requires careful examination in order for cost effective supporting designs. In this research, a synthetic rock mass (SRM) numerical method is applied for characterizations of the jointed rock mass and excavation damage zone (EDZ) near underground tunnels in 3D. The SRM model consists of bonded particles and simulates deformation and crack propagation of the rock mass through interactions between these particles. The effects of joint stiffness and distribution on the rock mass properties are systematically examined by comparing the numerical data with an empirical geological strength index (GSI) system and an associated Hoek-Brown strength criterion. The numerical results suggest that rock mass properties are comparable to the empirical GSI/Hoek-Brown system only when inclined joints are simulated in the rock mass subjected to axial loading. The rock mass is strengthened and the empirical GSI/Hoek-Brown characterization becomes inappropriate when the joints are less favorable to shear sliding. The SRM method is then applied for characterizations of tunnel EDZ. It appears that the depth and location of the EDZ are a function of the tunnel orientation, joints, and in situ stresses. The EDZ depth is expected to be higher when inclined joints are simulated. The EDZ area is reduced when the joints in the rock mass are horizontally and vertically distributed.

     

基于Mamdani模糊推理的山岭隧道围岩RMR14分级

岩体分级方法(RMR14)可充分评价岩体力学性质和结构面的条件,且可考虑初始地应力场和开挖方式等工程因素的影响,非常适用于山岭隧道围岩的评价。但RMR14评级方法的阶梯状评分会引起评分区间边界出现模糊不确定性,为更加准确地评价岩体质量,基于Mamdani模糊推理方法,引入模糊隶属函数来解决模糊不确定性问题。采用"if-then"推理法则实现多输入参数多推理规则的模糊推理,提出基于Mamdani模糊推理的RMR14岩体分级方法,并将此方法应用于独平高速漂里隧道的围岩质量评价。研究结果表明,基于Mamdani模糊推理的RMR14岩体质量分级方法既可借鉴既有工程经验,又可恰当处理评分边界的模糊不确定性问题;与直接采用RMR14分级方法相比,本文提出的模糊分级方法能更加准确评价围岩质量。     

Analysis on microseismic characteristics and stability of the access tunnel in the main powerhouse,Shuangjiangkou hydropower station,under high in situ stress

Access tunnel in the main powerhouse of Shuangjiangkou hydropower station was deep buried with high in situ stress and complex geological conditions. Microseismic monitoring technology was established to monitor microcrack evolution process inside the surrounding rock in early excavation stage. Serious falling blocks in the left spandrel of the tunnel were predicted in a timely manner by delimiting major damage areas in the tunnel. Based on comparative analysis on microseismic activity law and field failure characteristics of the access tunnel, a quantitative index was supposed between slight rockburst like falling blocks and microseismic events. Moreover, the change law of daily average apparent stress difference and b value were analyzed based on microseismic event data. In addition, a three-dimensional numerical simulation software (RFPA3D) was used to simulate the damage distribution around the tunnel, and a relationship between spatial position of tunnel damage and direction of the maximum principal stress was qualitatively analyzed. The study results showed that advance speed of the tunnel working face was an important factor affecting the state of stress redistribution in surrounding rock mass, and the change law of b values of microseismic events could be used to predict activity state inside the surrounding rock effectively, which reflected mechanical properties and stress state of surrounding rock. In particular, field falling blocks became more serious with increasing b value, and field surrounding rock was relatively stable with minor b value. A risk of surrounding rock instability was relatively high with small b values. It provided an efficient method of predicting and assessing slight rockburst like falling blocks. The study results can provide significant guidance for field construction and later construction planning.

     

Tunneling in fault zones, Tuzla tunnel, Turkey

The Tuzla tunnel was excavated mainly in fault zones, shale and limestones using the conventional and shielded tunnel boring machine (TBM) methods. Fault zones in shales are brecciated and clayey, while those in limestones are of blocky structure. The rock mass rating, rock mass classification and support systems proposed for fault zones in Tuzla tunnel are insufficient for explaining the deformation and failure mechanisms encountered in the tunnel. In addition, dyke exposures, the fault-collapsed karstic system and groundwater also caused some problems during the excavation of the tunnel. The most important event relevant to fault zones in the Tuzla tunnel was the selection of a TBM. Before the excavation of the tunnel, the rock was determined to be of poor to fair quality. Therefore, tunneling with a TBM in rock of poor to fair quality was thought to be economic. However, during the excavation, fault zones with poor to very poor rock characteristics were encountered along an area comprising 70% of the tunnel length. The fault zones caused jamming of the TBM cutter and deviation from the tunnel alignment. In this respect, tunneling with the TBM method was quite problematic. Geotechnical problems encountered in the fault zones required special measures to be taken in the tunnel. With these measures, excavation and supporting of the tunnel were completed successfully by transforming heterogeneous conditions in the fault zones to homogeneous conditions in the tunnel impact area.     

隧道开挖的围岩损伤扰动带分析

在给出隧道开挖损伤扰动带的概念、主要影响因素基础上,提出了隧道开挖损伤扰动带的力学、渗流特征及表征方法。在现场实测基础上,利用数值法研究了隧道开挖后的不同开挖方法的变形、渗流场变化规律。结果表明:开挖损伤主要决定于隧道开挖方法;隧道开挖引起的渗流影响边界大于力学影响边界。研究结果有助于合理地建立隧道开挖问题的流固耦合模型。     

武广客专大断面软弱破碎围岩隧道开挖及支护

就武广客专大断面软弱或破碎围岩隧道的开挖方法和支护措施进行了分析,探讨了适用于大断面不同地质情况低级别围岩隧道的快速开挖和支护技术,指出大断面客专隧道选择开挖方法时应结合具体地质条件,施工技术和现场管理水平决定。     

On the influence of rock mass quality on the quality of blasting work in tunnel driving

After defining the parameters describing the quality of blasts in tunnel driving — the pull efficiency, the overbreak and the HCF factor (the ratio of the observe length of half cast on the tunnel wall to the total drilled length of the contour holes) — the paper examines the influence of the quality of the rock mass on said parameters. As indicators of the quality of the rock, the RMR (Rock Mass Rating) according to Bieniawski and the rock mass strength according to Hoek and Brown criterion are assumed. On the basis of observations in more than 15 stretches of tunnels in different geological conditions and excavated with different techniques, it has been possible to outline the relationships between RMR and rock mass strength and the blasting efficiency, the overbreak and the HCF It is concluded that the rock mass structure has a not negligible influence when a quality threshold has to be set for a tunnel blasting operation; the threshold values as suggested by observation are indicated. Moreover, it has been found that the use of sophisticated drilling systems, using expensive equipment, does not provide advantages in cases of rock masses of poor quality. Finally, it has been found that HCF is a sensitive indicator of the quality of blasting, and that the same factor increases in an evident manner as the rock mass quality improves.     

Safe rapid drifting – Support selection

Current drift advance rates in mining fall short of expectations with advances in drilling and blasting technologies. Quick access to orebodies improves their net present value (NPV). This is critical for block cave mining where several kilometers of drift network is initially required at high capital cost. Many mining companies are now planning block caving because of its long-term low production cost. This paper critically reviews the developments in tunnelling and mine drift development rates with advances in drilling and explosives technologies. Current drift support practice during development is also critically reviewed together with the rock mass classification systems. These reviews show that, while drilling and explosive technologies have drastically improved since 1850, current drift advance rates in the Canadian metalliferrous mining industry have either remained stagnant or dropped below the1960 advance rate levels and in comparison to advance rates in civil tunnelling. It is also established that a major cause for this stagnation is the use of long-term support in good ground conditions where only temporary support is required near-face for worker safety in the short-term. Long-term support takes up 46% of development cycle time. The paper presents a methodology for drift support design for underground hard rock conditions typically found in current mining practice in the Canadian Shield and discusses the rationale for optimizing ground support systems installed near-face during drift development. An improved Q-system called Q-star (Q^*) that accounts for discontinuous joints (rock bridges) and roughness of short joints in the rock mass is developed to more reliably estimate the self-support capacities of rock masses. It is recommended that construction damage be accounted for in the rock mass rating for safe support selection during development. A procedure is developed for the adjustment of Q^* to account for construction damage. Perimeter blasting is recommended as pre-requisite for rapid drift development in order to minimize construction damage, reduce support demand and scaling and mucking times. A support matrix is presented based on rock mass quality and stress level for safe rapid drift development. Two case histories in active mines are presented to validate the procedure. The methodology is applicable to stress-induced damage and may not apply where complete relaxation occurs. While the procedures presented are focused on typical conditions in the Canadian Shield underground mines, they may be applicable in civil engineering tunneling and other underground mines where drill-and-blast is used as the excavation method.     

A methodology for evaluation and classification of rock mass quality on tunnel engineering

In this paper a new methodology for evaluation and classification of rock mass quality that can be applied to rock tunneling is presented. An evaluation model based on combing the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and the fuzzy Delphi method (FDM) for assessing the rock mass rating is the main procedure. This research treats rock mass classification as a group decision problem, and applies the fuzzy logic theory as the criterion to calculate the weighting of factors. The main advantage of this procedure is that it can effectively change the weighting of each rating parameter with the variation of geological conditions. The proposed method was evaluated and applied to the actual cases that are the two tunnels along the Second Northern Highway around Taipei area in Taiwan, namely Mu-Zha and Hsin-Tien tunnels. It was found that the determined results were in a good agreement with the original data assessed by the RMR. Results of the analyses show that it can be provided a more quantitative measure of rock mass and hence minimize judgmental bias. The proposed method should be more feasible for future tunnel construction and for suggestions of tunnel support design in the geological area of Taiwan.     

复杂地质条件下大埋深隧洞衬砌与围岩协同作用#br# 物理模型试验研究

围岩-支护协同作用是地下工程支护结构设计的核心问题,关乎着地下工程建设的成败。为揭示深埋隧洞围岩与支护结构协同作用机理,以滇中引水最大埋深约1512m的香炉山隧洞为研究背景工程,首次开展复杂地质条件下深埋隧洞衬砌与围岩协同作用真三维地质力学模型试验,真实再现隧洞开挖与支护的施工全过程。模型试验研究表明：1）不同地质条件下隧洞围岩的应力释放过程不同,硬岩隧洞围岩应力释放速率先慢后快,软岩隧洞应力释放速率先快后慢;2）不同地质条件下隧洞衬砌与围岩接触压力的分布形式不同,硬岩隧洞最大接触压力位于拱肩,软岩隧洞最大接触压力位于拱顶;3）衬砌与围岩协同作用包括两种应力释放机制、3个施工阶段和4种承载状态;4）不同地质条件下隧洞衬砌施作后围岩和衬砌承担的荷载比例不同,硬岩隧洞围岩平均承担约85%的荷载,衬砌约承担15%的荷载,软岩隧洞围岩平均承担约25%的荷载,衬砌承担约75%的荷载。