Protection from fire: Nonflammable clothing — A review

Technology has the capability of providing nonflammable protective clothing for fire fighting, industrial, and military applications. However, there are practical problems to be overcome before everyone can enjoy the protection of such garments. Note: N. J. Abbott is associated with Fabric Research Laboratories, an Albany International Company, Dedham, Massachusetts, and S. Schulman is associated with the Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio.     

Development of halogenated hydrocarbon foam (halofoam) extinguishants

The authors report on a study in which a number of halogenated hydrocarbon foams were developed, which are more effective than bromochloromethane in extinguishing Types A, B, and C fires. Note: This paper is a summary of a report by the same title, No. AFAPL-TR-71-21, prepared by Arthur D. Little, Inc. for Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, April 1971. A patent application was field with the United States Patent Office on April 29, 1971. Mr. Atallah’s presentation at the 75th Annual Meeting of the National Fire Protection Association on May 19, 1971 in San Francisco, California was also based on this report.     

A final report on fire tests involving stored plastics

The Factory Mutual Research Corporation has completed a series of fire tests of stored plastics. This paper highlights the major points of the final report. Note: The author presented this paper at the National Fire Protection Association annual meeting held in Chicago, May 1975.     

Ablative fluids in the fire environment

Experiments carried out on high-challenge fires demonstrate that ablative water is practical and highly effective for fire extinguishment as compared to plain water. Ablative water, films are much thicker and provide insulation. Chemicals and Plastics, Union Carbide Corp. Factory Mutual Research Corporation Note: The authors presented this paper at a meeting of the Industrial Fire Protection Section held in conjunction with the 73rd Annual Meeting of the National Fire Protection Association in New York City on May 13, 1969.     

A simplified method for determining flame spread

The author discusses a small-scale fire test, which he proposes be used to determine flame-spread ratings for plastics during the development stages. Data on certain cellulosic materials indicate good correlation with the 25-ft tunnel test. Note: Based on a paper delivered by the author at the 22nd Annual Technical Conference of the Society of Plastics Engineers, March 12, 1966. At the time of the paper’s presentation, Mr. Levy was employed by the Pittsburgh Corning Corporation. He is currently with the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company.     

Effect of drop size on sprinkler performance

Much of the water discharged by today’s standard sprinkler is wasted as a result of improper drop size. A new dual nozzle sprinkler holds promise of providing better protection at lower cost and with less water damage. Factory Mutual Research Corporation Note: This paper was presented at the 74th Annual Meeting of the National Fire Protection Association in Toronto on May 21, 1970.     

Flammability tests for cellular plastics—Part II

In our last issue, the author examined the requirements of various tests employed to determine the flammability of cellular plastics. Here, he discusses a system of four tests used by Union Carbide, and the thinking behind its application for product evaluation and as research and development tool. Union Carbide Corporation Note: Based on a paper titled “The Flammability Characteristics of Cellular Plastics” delivered by the author at the May 1967 Polymer Conference at Wayne State University and subsequently published in the September 1967 issue ofIndustrial & Engineering Chemistry, Product Research and Development.     

Understanding sprinkler performance: Modeling of combustion and extinction

The Factory Mutual Research Corporation is engaged in a research program aimed at understanding and improving sprinkler performance. The author, after discussing the work done to date, draws some preliminary conclusions based on his findings. Note: Dr. Kalelkar presented this paper at the 75th Annual Meeting of the National Fire Protection Association on May 19, 1971 in San Francisco, Ca. Dr. Kalelkar’s present address is Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Ma. 02140.     

Flammability tests for cellular plastics—Part I

Many tests have been employed to describe the behavior of cellular plastics when exposed to fire. In this, the first part of a two-part article, the author discusses the requirements of various small-, medium-, and large-scale tests. Union Carbide Corporation Note: Based on a paper titled “The Flammability Characteristics of Cellular Plastics” delivered by the author at the May 1967 Polymer Conference at Wayne State University and subsequently published in the September 1967 issue ofIndustrial & Engineering Chemistry, Product Research and Development.     

The work of CIB W56

Paavo Hassinen from the Laboratory of Structural Engineering at the Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) and Pentti Äystö from the collaborating company YIT‐Corporation, Makrotalo, study the short term static properties of a four layer sandwich panel and compare it with the usual three layer panel. The results are based on the calculations and loading tests carried out in the laboratory at VTT.     

The fire hazard of fibrous glass ducts—An evaluation

A series of fifty-seven fire tests was conducted to evaluate the significance of the combustible components of compositions used in the manufacture of fibrous glass ducts and to evaluate the fire spread potential of such ducts. These tests established that fibrous glass ducts are products of low combustibility comparable to several other products of low combustibility which are commonly classed as noncombustible, that with severe fire exposure much in excess of the available heat in the products themselves they can be made to burn, and that the likelihood of fire spread through the ducts to other areas is remote. Factory Mutual Research Corporation Note: Based on Factory Mutual Research Corp. Laboratory Report No. 15985 by J. A. Wilson, prepared for the National Insulation Manufacturers Association, Mr. Capron is currently employed by the Inland Steel Company.     

In vitro toxicity assessment of a new series of high energy compounds.

Hydrazine is an aircraft fuel and propellant used by the US Air Force. Due to its toxicity the Propulsion Directorate of the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL/PR) has investigated alternative chemicals to replace hydrazine. AFRL/PR has synthesized a series of high energy chemicals (HECs), primarily hydrazine derivatives and amino containing compounds such as hydrazinium nitrate (HZN), 2-hydroxyethyl-hydrazine nitrate (HEHN), diethyl hydrazine nitrate (DEHN), ethanolamine nitrate (EAN), histamine dinitrate (HDN) and methoxylamine nitrate (MAN) to study as alternative chemical candidates. Although HECs are reliable constituents of powered propellant systems, they constitute an important class of toxic agents to which military and civilian personnel can be exposed. The current study was undertaken to examine the toxicity of HECs in primary hepatocytes in vitro. The effects of short-term exposure (4 h) of hepatocytes to HECs were investigated with reference to viability, mitochondrial function and oxidative stress markers. The results showed a decrease in mitochondrial activity, increase in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage and depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH) levels. The levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased dose dependently in HZN, MAN and HDN exposed cells. However, there was no induction of ROS generation in EAN, DEHN and HEHN exposed cells. Depletion of GSH in hepatocytes by buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) prior to exposure to HZN increased its toxicity. The results suggest that at least one mechanism of HEC toxicity is mediated through oxidative stress.     

The use of light water for major aircraft fires

When a new extinguishing agent appears on the scene, existing agents become the yardsticks by which its performance is measured. The authors compared the relatively new Light Water foam with conventional protein foam and protein foam to which surface-active fluorocarbons had been added. Fire Research Station (JFRO) Note: Mr. Nash presented this paper at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the National Fire Protection Association on May 12, 1969 in New York City.     

Pre-prototype hand-held fire detectors

An important and often difficult part of fire extinguishing operations is locating concealed, smoldering fires and hot spots. A rapidresponse infrared-sensitive fire detector, which is suitable for fire department use, has been designed. The author describes the device, and reports the results of laboratory and field tests made on several pre-prototype models. HRB-Singer, Inc. Note: This paper was presented at a fire research symposium, Washington, D.C., on May 17, 1965, sponsored by the Office of Civil Defense. It is based on a report of the same title, No. 76711-F, dated 15 March 1965, by HRB-Singer, Inc., State College, Pa., under Contract No. OCD-OS-65-11 for the Office of Civil Defense, Washington, D. C. Copies of the report are available from the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, U. S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22151.     

Improving PAQ and comfort conditions in Spanish office buildings with passive climate control

Some researchers have demonstrated that passive moisture transfer between indoor air and hygroscopic structures has the potential to moderate variations of indoor air relative humidity and, thus, to improve comfort and PAQ [Simonson CJ, Salonvaara M, Ojalen T. The effect of structures on indoor humidity-possibility to improve comfort and perceived air quality. Indoor Air 2002; 12: 243–51; Simonson CJ, Salonvaara M, Ojalen T. Improving indoor climate and comfort with wooden structures. Espoo 2001. Technical Research Centre of Finland, VTT Publications 431.200p+app 91p]. The main objective of this study is to show the internal wall coating effect on indoor air conditions and, as a consequence of this, in comfort conditions and PAQ.     

Extinguishment of natural gas pressure fires

Several series of tests have been performed to compare the effectiveness of sodium bicarbonate-base and potassium bicarbonate-base dry chemicals in extinguishing natural gas fires. The author describes the methods used to analyze test data and recommends specific dry chemical application rates for extinguishing such fires. Note: Copies of the motion picture records of the tests may be borrowed from The Ansul Company and the Safety First Products Corporation.     

A new fire management policy on Forest Service lands

A new Forest Service policy, effective February 1978, allows some wildfires to burn under prescribed conditions, urges a multidisciplinary approach to fire control, and has applications to rural and urban situations. Note: The author, formerly with the Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, Calif., is now with the Forest Fire and Atmospheric Sciences Research Staff, Washington, D.C.     

Fire and high buildings

The time necessary to evacuate today’s high-rise buildings in a fire emergency is unsatisfactory from the standpoint of the development of untenable smoke conditions. The Division of Building Research has been working on the problem for several years and suggests several approaches to controlling smoke movement in buildings. Note: Mr. Wilson is Assistant Director of the Division of Building Research, and Mr. Shorter is Head of the Fire Research Section. Note: The authors presented this paper at the 74th Annual Meeting of the National Fire Protection Association in Toronto on May 20, 1970. It is a contribution from the Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada and is published with the approval of the Director of the Division.     

Measuring mass loss rates in free burning fires

Accurate data on mass loss rates of fuels in large, free-burning fires are scant. However, the authors report a method of making such measurements, which, when tested, provided reliable data. Note: Mr. Murray is now in the Forestry and Timber Bureau, Canberra, Australia; Mr. Northcutt is now in the Division of Forest Fire and Atmosphere Research, Forest Service, USDA, Washington, D. C.; and Mr. Countryman is stationed at Riverside, California.     

Fuel tank inerting and fire fighting,with liquid nitrogen

The vapor space in fuel tanks becomes a serious hazard when the vapor-to-air ratio falls within the explosive limits of the mixture. the author discusses a system that prevents the formation of explosive mixtures by using liquid nitrogen to render the vapor space inert. Parker Hannifin Corporation Note: The author presented this paper at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the National Fire Protection Association in New York City on May 13, 1969.