Social maladjustment and problem solving in school-aged children.

Examined the relationship between social adjustment and the cognitive skills of solving interpersonal problems. 68 popular, aggressive, or isolated boys at 2 grade levels (2nd–3rd and 4th–5th) were presented with 6 hypothetical problem situations and asked to generate alternative solutions to the problems. Ss were subsequently asked to evaluate the effectiveness of solutions presented to them by the experimenter. It was found that the popular Ss generated more solutions than either the aggressive or isolated groups, which did not differ. The initial solutions of all groups were rated as "effective," in most cases, by independent coders. Subsequent solutions, however, varied as a function of S status. Popular Ss continued to generate effective solutions, whereas deviant Ss generated aggressive and ineffective solutions. No differences among S groups were found in the evaluations of the effectiveness of given solutions. Data support the notion that deviant boys are deficient in the cognitive problem-solving skills of generating alternative solutions but are not deficient in the evaluation of presented solutions. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Automatic versus reflective social problem solving in relation to children's sociometric status.

Children's automatic and reflective social problem-solving skills were compared by requiring them to generate solutions to hypothetical social problems immediately after hearing them or after being required to wait 20 sec before answering. When responding immediately, a condition designed to evoke Ss' automatic response tendencies, both aggressive and nonaggressive, rejected boys generated fewer verbal assertion responses and more conflict-escalating responses than did nonrejected boys. When required to delay before responding, a condition that encouraged reflective reasoning, only the responses of aggressive rejected boys differed from those of nonrejected boys. Similar status-related differences in the solutions proposed by female Ss were not found. The implications of these findings for aggressive and rejected children's social problem-solving deficiencies are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children with peer adjustment problems: Sequential and nonsequential analyses of school behaviors.

Compared the behavior of 48 4th- and 6th-grade boys with positive (P) and negative (N) peer status in a naturalistic school setting. N Ss differed more from P Ss in the older sample than in the younger sample. N Ss also showed an excess of playful aggressive behavior, suggesting a deficit in aggression socialization. Sequential analyses provided general support for the reciprocity hypothesis, which posits that individuals tend to match the affective quality of a response to that of the previous response. Peer interactions beginning with negative and neutral responses, however, progressed differently for N and P Ss. Whereas negative exchanges with P Ss became neutralized over time, negative exchanges with N Ss tended to persist in a negative manner. Paradoxically, N Ss showed a greater tendency to respond in a friendly positive manner after receiving neutral peer contacts than P Ss. The utility of sequential analyses for identifying interaction patterns that might contribute to the development of maladaptive behaviors and the importance of social systems-oriented intervention strategies are discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social-cognitive and behavioral characteristics of peer-rejected boys.

Identified 13 rejected and 13 popular 3rd- and 4th-grade boys using sociometric nomination measures. Playground observations and interview assessments of social problem solving were administered during the winter and spring. Rejected Ss both exhibited and received more aversive behavior than popular Ss. Although no status differences in the overall rate of interaction were found, rejected Ss exhibited more onlooker behavior and solitary play than the popular ones. No differences in the frequency of alternative solutions to hypothetical social problems were found between status groups. The solutions of rejected Ss were, however, less effective and more aggressive than those of populars. Chosen solutions of rejected Ss were also more likely to be ineffective and aggressive than those of populars. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elimination of vicarious reinforcement effects within an implicit reward situation.

The presence of cognitive evaluations of reward conditions in vicarious reward situations set in typical classrooms has been suggested in theoretical literature. The present study investigated this suggestion by examining the effect of free- versus no-talk conditions between target and peer Ss under vicarious reward conditions. Ss were 18 boys and 14 girls from a typical 4th-grade classroom. Data collected on a task involving reproduction of the letters of the alphabet showed that vicarious reinforcement effects occurred when verbal communication of reward enjoyment to nonreward Ss was possible but not when such communication was restricted. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual factors in children's social information processing.

Attributions and social problem solutions of socially accepted and rejected boys and girls (M age?=?9.33 yrs) were assessed by verbal responses to hypothetical vignettes embedded in a computer mathematics game involving 3 contextual factors: interpersonal context (competition or collaboration), outcome of the game (success or failure), and story type (ambiguous provocation or peer group entry). More hostile attributions of intent were provided in the failure than in the success condition and in the ambiguous provocation than in the peer group entry stories. More aggressive problem solutions were provided in ambiguous provocation than in peer group entry stories. Boys offered more aggressive solutions than girls in the cooperation condition but not the competition condition and for the provocation stories but not the peer group entry stories. Rejected children offered somewhat more aggressive solutions than accepted children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mood changes, physiological responses, and self-statements during social rejection imagery.

Exp I, partially replicating M. Goldfried and D. Sobocinski's (see record 1975-26824-001) methodology, evaluated the cognitive behavioral assumption that one's images and correct verbalizations mediate emotional and physiological arousal. Ss were 32 female university students who scored at the extremes on the importance of social approval scale from the Irrational Beliefs Test. It was hypothesized that relative to the low-irrational Ss, high-irrational ones would emit more negative and fewer positive tasks- and self-referent self-statements, report greater emotional arousal, and exhibit greater increases in physiological arousal while visualizing social rejection scenes. The major finding was that the groups differed significantly in the frequency of negative self-referent self-statements; virtually no support was obtained for the other hypotheses. Exp II, which used 24 females and which did not employ self-statements or physiological measures but was otherwise similar to Exp I, was a more exact replication of the Goldfried and Sobocinski study. Exp III, with 36 Ss, was a complete replication of the Goldfried and Sobocinski study. The data from the latter 2 studies indicate no differences in the reported moods of high- and low-irrational Ss following visualizations of social rejection scenes. Conceptual and clinical implications are discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Biased decision-making processes in aggressive boys.

Recent evidence has suggested that aggressive boys demonstrate a bias toward attributing hostility to peers in unwarranted circumstances. The present study explored 2 aspects of cognitive processing that might be related to attributional bias: speed of decision making and selective recall of hostile cues. 81 aggressive and nonaggressive boys at 3 age levels (kindergarten–2st grade, 2nd–3rd, and 4th–5th) participated in a detective game in which the task was to accumulate evidence to decide whether or not a peer had acted with benevolence or hostility. Aggressive boys were found to respond more quickly and with less attention to available social cues. They also overattributed hostility to peers in unwarranted circumstances, but only when they responded quickly. This restriction suggests that training aggressive boys to respond more slowly could lead to fewer biased attributions on their part. Selective recall was also related to biased attributions for both groups of boys. This suggests that training boys to recall all cues nonselectively could reduce the frequency of their biased attributions. Results are discussed in terms of a cognitive model of aggressive behavior. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What do students learn while solving mathematics problems?

Evidence is accumulating that the means–ends problem-solving strategies used conventionally by novice problem solvers are relatively ineffective as vehicles for the acquisition of schemata characteristic of experts. It is suggested that a means–ends strategy places a heavy load on cognitive processing capacity and that this load retards knowledge acquisition. A series of 3 experiments using trigonometry problems and a total of 20 10th-grade and 42 9th-grade students as Ss was carried out. The problem goal was modified with the intention of disrupting the strategy used by novices. It was hypothesized that the development of adequate cognitive representations of the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios would be enhanced as a consequence. Results indicate that preventing novice problem solvers from using means–ends analysis resulted in fewer mathematical errors both during acquisition and on subsequent problems, including transfer problems. This provided some evidence for the contention that a means–ends strategy places a heavy load on cognitive processing capacity, which retards knowledge acquisition. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive influences on the development of learned helplessness.

120 college students participated in an experiment concerning the influence of self-statements following failure on subsequent symptoms of learned helplessness (LH). 40 Ss were given solvable concept-formation problems (nonhelpless condition), and 80 Ss were given unsolvable problems (helpless condition). MANOVA revealed a significant difference between helpless and nonhelpless Ss on cognitive/motivational and affective measures of LH and on self-statements regarding performance. However, when multiple regression and correlational analyses were performed within the group of Ss who failed the problems, no stable relationship was found between self-statements (cognitions) about concept-formation performance and the LH measures. Implications for A. T. Beck's (1967) cognitive model of depression and the reformulated LH model of depression (L. Y. Abramson et al, 1978) are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of conceptual complexity on assertive behavior.

Postulated that information-processing style is an important cognitive skill for effective assertive behavior and identified conceptual complexity (CC) as the variable that defined Ss' information-processing approach. In 2 studies, 146 undergraduates differing in CC were compared in their performance on various measures relevant to competent assertive behavior (e.g., Assertiveness Knowledge Inventory, the Hypothetical Behavior Role-Playing Assertion Test, and the Assertiveness Self-Statement Test). In Exp I, high CC Ss (e.g., those who possessed abstract schema for processing social information) demonstrated greater content knowledge, direct delivery skill, and fewer negative self-statements that inhibit assertiveness. Exp II involved the testing of various hypotheses about the specific role of CC in assertive encounters. High vs low CC females were more assertive in difficult situations (e.g., interaction with close friends) but did not differ in simple situations. High CC Ss were more assertive in extended interaction tests, expressed consideration of the needs of others, and were more flexible in sex-role orientation. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a task analysis of assertive behavior

Conceptualized assertiveness problems in terms of a task analysis of the topography of competent responding. 47 male and 54 female undergraduates who ranged from extremely nonassertive to highly assertive (according to their scores on the Conflict Resolution Inventory) responded to 3 sets of situations requiring refusal of an unreasonable request. Content knowledge of an assertive response, delivery of the response under 2 conditions, heart rate, self-perceived tension, and the incidence of positive and negative self-statements were assessed. Differences on these variables between low-assertive (LA), moderate-assertive (MA), and high-assertive (HA) groups were analyzed to determine the nature of the response deficit in nonassertive Ss. LA Ss differed from MA and HA Ss on role-playing assessments requiring them to deliver an assertive response, but they did not differ from MA and HA Ss on their knowledge of a competent response or on hypothetical delivery situations. No significant differences in heart rate were observed between LA, MA, and HA Ss; however, higher self-perceived tension was found in LA compared to MA and HA Ss. A greater number of negative and fewer positive self-statements were reported by LA compared to MA and HA Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Imitation in the interest of social influence.

Tested the possibility that imitation may be used as a means of social influence among 40 5th- and 6th-grade boys and girls. One member of each pair served as the model and the other as the S. Ss who were given an induction designed to motivate them to influence the model imitated the model significantly more than Ss who received no induction. Looking and smiling at the model was positively correlated with imitation for the social influence Ss, but not for the control Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of cognitive assessment methods with heterosocially anxious college women.

Investigated the comparability of self-statements generated by different cognitive assessment methods (structured questionnaire and thought listing) and the effect of an assessment delay on cognitive phenomena (self-statements; rational and irrational beliefs, evaluative, potency, and activity semantic schema; self-attributions; and self-ratings of discomfort and performance). The interrelationships among different cognitive variables were also studied. Ss were 64 high and low heterosocially anxious (as measured by the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale and a survey of heterosocial interactions) undergraduate females, who engaged in a conversation with a male confederate. One-half of the Ss completed the measures after the conversation, and the other half completed them 1 wk later. Findings show that although the 2 self-statement methods were counterbalanced, order effects were nonsignificant. Correlations indicated that self-statements (positive and negative thoughts) generated by the 2 methods were unrelated. Multivariate and univariate analyses failed to reveal significant effects for time of assessment. Significant effects were found on almost all variables for anxiety, constituting additional construct validity for these measures. A correlational matrix provided information about interrelationships among the cognitive variables. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of experimental socialization paradigms upon two moral responses to transgression.

In an initial experiment on the antecedents of self-criticism and reparation, 57 5th-grade girls were equally assigned to 2 treatments: High Cognitive Structure High Control and Low Cognitive Structure-Low Control. Each S was repeatedly punished for an aggressive act on 10 training trials. On the test trial, a more destructive act was contrived to elicit internalized moral responses. In a 2nd experiment, using the same techniques but designed to distinguish independent antecedents, 68 5th-grade boys were equally assigned to each of 4 treatments: High Cognitive Structure-High Control, High Cognitive Structure-Low Control, Low Cognitive Structure-High Control, and Low Cognitive Structure-Low Control. Induction of self-criticism was significantly related to E's cognitive structuring during training. Reparative responses were a function of whether S or E controlled punishment. The 2 moral responses were concluded to be the consequences of distinct patterns of social reinforcement and not attributable to a unitary entity such as "conscience" or "superego." (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inoculation by emotion: Effects of positive emotional states on children's reactions to social comparison.

90 five- and 6-yr-old children, equally divided by sex, were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 emotion-inducing conditions: self-focused happy, other-focused happy, or neutral. After the emotion induction, the Ss experienced social comparisons in which the peer received more, fewer, or an equal number of rewards. It is suggested that ratings of facial expressions after the emotion inductions confirmed that Ss in the self- or other-focused conditions were equally happy and significantly happier than Ss in the neutral condition. Furthermore, all Ss accurately recalled the reward outcome of the social comparison experience. As predicted, when Ss received relatively fewer rewards, they displayed reduced generosity toward others except when this negative inequality had followed the induction of a self-focused happy mood. Results are discussed in terms of the cognitive processes initiated by emotional states that may influence tolerance for aversive experiences. Particular attention is given to the role of cognitive loops, selective attention, and tacit comparison processes initiated by emotional states and social comparisons. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Engagement in gender normative versus nonnormative forms of aggression: Links to social–psychological adjustment.

Although many important advances have been made in our understanding of childhood aggression in recent years, a significant limitation of prior studies has been the lack of attention to the possible moderating role of gender in the links between aggression and social–psychological adjustment. To address this issue, the author evaluated the adjustment status associated with engagement in gender normative versus gender nonnormative forms of aggression for both boys and girls. Indexes of social–psychological adjustment assessed included teacher and self-reports of internalizing and externalizing difficulties (N?=?1,166 children 9–12 years old). Results showed that children who engaged in gender nonnormative forms of aggression (i.e., overtly aggressive girls and relationally aggressive boys) were significantly more maladjusted than children who engaged in gender normative forms of aggression and children who were nonaggressive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relational and overt forms of peer victimization: A multiinformant approach.

This research addressed 2 limitations of past research on peer victimization: the tendency to study boys only and the tendency to focus on forms of peer maltreatment that are common in boys' peer groups (victimization through overt aggression) but occur much less frequently in girls' peer groups. Peer- and self-report instruments were used to assess a relational form of victimization in addition to the overt form that has been the focus of past research. Results showed that girls were more relationally victimized, whereas boys were more overtly victimized. Both forms of victimization were shown to predict concurrent sociopsychological adjustment problems significantly (e.g., peer rejection, loneliness) beyond aggression. Victims identified through a combination of self- and peer-reports were particularly maladjusted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

La réputation sociale de l'enfant en milieu scolaire.

Studied the social reputations of elementary school children. Ss were 76 2nd-grade (mean age 7.5 yrs), 71 3rd-grade (mean age 8.5 yrs), and 83 4th-grade students (mean age 9.7 yrs). Using the peer nomination technique, Ss were assessed collectively on 8 dimensions requiring both social and academic judgments. A cluster analysis was performed to identify groups with different sociometric profiles. Correlations between peer evaluations and teacher evaluations of Ss' social reputations were determined. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Agressivité et statut auprès des pairs chez les gar?ons du primaire: un examen de la règle de dissimilarité.

Studied the influence of the value attached to aggression by a peer group on the relationship between aggression and peer status. Human Ss: 171 normal male Canadian school-age children (mean age 8 yrs) (3rd-grade students from 14 classes). 106 normal male Canadian school-age children (mean age 10 yrs) (5th-grade students from 9 classes). Ss completed interviews, questionnaires, and peer nomination inventories to assess their peer status and attitudes toward aggression (ATA). Teachers filled out a behavior problem checklist for each S. Interactions between aggressive behavior and peer status were analyzed, and for each grade level, results from the 3 classes with the highest group ATA scores were compared to results from the 3 classes with the lowest group ATA scores. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)