低温超音速喷涂团聚铁粒子沉积的SPH模拟

为了研究纳米团聚粒子形态对涂层特性的影响,应用SPH方法研究了低温超音速火焰喷涂金属团聚粒子的沉积行为.结果表明,纳米粒子团聚为微米级粒子后,基体碰撞出现了飞溅现象,应变变化明显.团聚粒子的等效塑性应变小于普通微米粒子,但团聚粒子的面积扩大比大于普通微米粒子.沉积过程中,当超过临界沉积速度后,金属团聚粒子与基体之间存在过渡区域,过渡区域随粒子速度的增加而扩大.     

基于材料性能的冷喷涂临界速度预测窗口研究取得新进展

正冷喷涂过程中,喷涂粒子被高速气流加速到较高的速度(200~1 200m/s),在固态下碰撞基体,通过粒子强烈的塑形变形沉积在基体上形成涂层。由于喷涂材料和碰撞速度不同,粒子或者从基体上反弹或者沉积于基体上,使得粒子开始沉积到基体上的速度被称为临界速度,它是冷喷涂技术的一个     

冷喷涂特性

冷喷涂技术是近年来发展起来的新型喷涂技术，该方法通过低温（＜600℃）的高速固态粒子与基体发生塑性碰撞而实现涂层沉积，可以避免喷涂材料在喷涂过程中受热影响而发生氧化，分解等，可以将喷涂材料的组织结构在不发生变化的条件下移植到基体表面，简要介绍了冷喷涂技术的原理与特点，冷喷涂层的组织结构与性能以及涂层沉积特性与行为的研究现状，粒子的速度对于涂层的沉积起着决定性作用，对于一定的材料存在一临界速度，约为500－600m/s，当粒子速度超过该临界速度后，随着速度的增加，沉积效率增加，最高可以达到80％以上，迄今的研究表明，冷喷涂可以实现大多数金属材料甚至金属陶瓷材料的沉积。     

基于SPH的超音速火焰喷涂WC-12Co粒子速度对其沉积行为的影响

目的 以超音速火焰喷涂过程为基础,探究粒子撞击速度对粒子在基体上沉积行为的影响。方法 应用SPH方法,模拟分析WC-12Co粒子速度在400～800 m/s内,单个粒子在相同基体上的沉积行为。结果 粒子撞击速度与粒子扁平率、粒子基体结合面积、结合方式等有密切关系。随着粒子撞击速度的增加,基坑深度持续增大至最小深度的4.6倍,金属射流对提高粒子扁平化程度及粒子与基体的有效结合面积起到促进作用,总接触面积最大可达到原有效接触面积的2.7倍。撞击速度的提升使得有效塑性应变及应变区域增加,形变区域增大。同时,结合面温升总体增加,增强了粒子与基体的结合条件。沉积过程存在能量耗散,初始能量的提高有利于粒子与基体总能量的增加,强化了压实效应,进一步促进粒子与基体的结合。结论 在数值模拟选取的范围内,超音速火焰喷涂WC-12Co粒子的撞击速度越高,粒子与基体的结合状态越好。     

冷喷涂粒子碰撞行为和临界速度预测的数值模拟研究现状

目前,冷喷涂技术受到越来越多国内外学者的关注。文中基于已公开发表的文献,详细讨论了冷喷涂过程中粒子碰撞行为的数值模拟和临界速度预测的研究现状。首先,简要介绍了冷喷涂、粒子结合机理和临界速度的概念。其次,总结了拉格朗日法、欧拉法和光滑粒子法等数值计算方法,并对数值计算获得的结果,例如:变形形貌、界面温度、能量变化及临界速度的预测进行了讨论。最后,探讨了冷喷涂粒子碰撞行为数值模拟中存在的问题和研究前景。     

几种金属基板上冷喷涂铜涂层的试验与模拟

采用自主研制的冷喷涂设备在三种典型基板上进行喷涂试验,相同的工艺参数下,在铜和铝基板上得到良好的铜涂层,而在钢基板上则没有沉积.实验结果表明:涂层与基板界面、涂层内部颗粒界面结合良好,铜涂层组织致密,显微硬度高达150HV0.1;从涂层表面形貌扫描电镜(SEM)照片中可以观察到射流状的金属,说明颗粒发生了巨大变形,经计算知颗粒在碰撞中压缩率达69%;粉末和涂层的X射线衍射(XRD)结果表明铜粉末在冷喷涂过程中没有发生氧化.同时,数值模拟了铜颗粒与三种基板的碰撞过程,讨论了形成有效结合的判断准则,根据该准则,计算出铜颗粒在铜、铝、钢基板上的临界沉积速度分别为600m/s,500m/s,800m/s,从而解释了铜颗粒在三种基板上不同的沉积行为.     

基体表面粗糙度对冷喷涂Ti6Al4V界面结合的数值模拟∗

在冷喷涂过程中,基体的表面粗糙度会影响涂层和基体之间的结合,目前对该问题关注还不够,且存在一定争议。以冷喷涂修复 Ti6Al4V 钛合金(TC4)过程为研究对象,利用有限元模拟手段,建立二维和三维单粒子在不同表面粗糙度基体上的撞击模型。通过分析粒子在撞击到光滑表面、研磨表面和喷砂表面三种情况下界面的温度、等效塑性应变及系统能量的变化,得出以下结论：随着基体表面粗糙度的增加,粒子的等效塑性应变和扁平率逐渐减小。界面温度和等效塑性应变在基体“波峰”处较高,在“波谷”处较低,在高的表面粗糙度下,粒子的塑性变形减弱,反弹趋势增强。研究结果表明,对冷喷涂 TC4 修复过程而言,基体的粗糙化不利于涂层与基体的结合。研究结果可为冷喷涂修复钛合金过程中基体预处理方式的选择提供理论指导。     

冷喷涂粒子碰撞行为三维有限元热力耦合分析

冷喷涂粒子的碰撞变形行为对粒子的沉积起着重要的作用.采用ABAQUS/Explicit显式有限元分析软件对冷喷涂过程中粒子碰撞行为进行了三维数值模拟.通过引入材料的失效模型,获得了与文献报道试验结果相吻合的计算结果.计算结果表明,随着粒子速度增加,粒子变形程度增加,基体坑深增加.粒子大小对其碰撞变形形貌影响不大,不同尺寸粒子的变形具有相似性.     

基于Euler法的冷喷涂粒子与基体高速冲击过程数值分析

利用非线性动力分析软件LS-DYNA,对冷喷涂中铜粒子与铜基体的碰撞过程进行了数值分析.研究冷喷涂过程中沉积粒子与被喷涂基体的变形行为.结果表明:使用Lagrange法,当粒子撞击速度过大时,网格的过度畸变会导致计算的终止,其计算结果与实验结果相比有一定差距.而采用Euler法计算得到的铜粒子与铜基体在碰撞结束后的沉积形貌与实验观察吻合很好,表明模拟结果相对于Lagrange法的计算结果更为精确.此外,Euler法能准确的模拟多粒子共同撞击基体的过程,数值计算得到的多粒子涂层内部结构与实验结果也能很好的吻合.     

冷喷涂TC4涂层临界沉积速度计算及制备涂层性能研究

目的研究冷喷涂TC4涂层的临界沉积速度及粒子温度对临界沉积速度的影响规律,并研究气体压强对沉积涂层性能的影响规律。方法理论研究上,采用有限元LS-DYNA软件中的Johnson-Cook塑性模型,选取3D164计算单元建立模型,研究粒子在不同温度和不同速度下碰撞基体后的形貌特征,确定粒子沉积临界速度。试验研究上,采用N_2作为冷喷涂驱动气体,在TC4合金上制备TC4涂层,然后采用SEM、Image J图像分析软件、硬度计等分析已沉积涂层的孔隙率和硬度等性能。结果 25、400、500、600℃温度下,计算表明10μm的TC4合金粒子在TC4基板上的临界沉积速度分别为730、465、392、361 m/s,即随粒子温度升高,粒子临界沉积速度降低,粒子沉积成涂层更容易。采用冷喷涂工艺在TC4基板上沉积TC4涂层,在N_2温度600℃、气体压力3 MPa的条件下,制备的TC4涂层厚度约1000μm,与TC4钛合金基体结合紧密,涂层孔隙率约为6.46%。结论气体温度升高,粒子临界沉积速度降低;气体压强变大,制备的涂层厚度就大且更加致密。     

Finite Element Simulation of Impacting Behavior of Particles in Cold Spraying by Eulerian Approach

In this study, an investigation on the impacting behavior of cold-sprayed particles using the Eulerian formulation available in ABAQUS/Explicit was conducted with typical copper material. The results show that a jet cannot be formed at an impact velocity less than about 290?m/s, while a continuous jet composed of both particle and substrate materials begins to initially form at about 290?m/s and a maximum equivalent plastic strain plateau can be found, which could be the approximate critical velocity. In addition, the jet presents discontinuities and the splashing causes the loss of material as the impact velocity exceeds the velocity extent of 290-400?m/s. Therefore, through theoretical analysis of the jet morphology, the Eulerian model could provide a prediction of the critical velocity.     

Effect of Mesh Resolution on the Particle Deformation during Cold Spraying by Eulerian Formulation

Numerical simulations focusing on the impacting behavior of cold sprayed particles were usually conducted by the Lagrangian formulation.However,the calculated outputs were much dependent on the meshing size owing to the excessive element distortion.Therefore,the Eulerian formulation becomes attractive,because it can avoid the extreme distortion of elements.In the present study,a copper particle impact on the same material substrate in cold spraying was simulated using the Eulerian formulation available in the ABAQUS software(Ver 6.8).The dependency of the calculated outputs on the meshing resolution were detailedly investigated.Results show that the meshing resolution not only has an effect on the shape of the deformed particle,but also it can significantly influence the maximum plastic strain and temperature under a given impact velocity.In addition,the copper particle deformation process at the critical velocity of 310 m/s shows that a jet composed of both of the particle and substrate materials can be formed and gets elongated with the impact time.     

Prediction of Critical Velocity During Cold Spraying Based on a Coupled Thermomechanical Eulerian Model

In cold spraying (CS), critical velocity of particles is one of the most important parameters. The impacting particle and substrate inevitably undergo a strong thermomechanical coupling process at the contacting interface and serious plastic deformation in a very short time. In this paper, a coupled thermomechanical Eulerian (CTM-Eulerian) model was, for the first time, developed for CS particles to investigate plastic deformation and heat conduction within the bulk, and to predict the critical velocity. Results show that heat conduction has a significant effect on the temperature distribution within the particle which will influence the atom diffusion at the impacting interface, while a little influence on plastic deformation. Moreover, based on the deformed particle shapes and plastic strain analysis, a calculated critical velocity of about 300 m/s for copper is obtained. Finally, this CTM-Eulerian model is extended to other commonly sprayed materials and the predicted critical velocities of Fe, Ni, SS304, Al, In718, and TC4 are about 350, 380, 395, 410, 490, and 500 m/s, respectively.     

Critical Deposition Condition of CoNiCrAlY Cold Spray Based on Particle Deformation Behavior

Previous research has demonstrated deposition of MCrAlY coating via the cold spray process; however, the deposition mechanism of cold spraying has not been clearly explained—only empirically described by impact velocity. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the critical deposit condition. Microscale experimental measurements of individual particle deposit dimensions were incorporated with numerical simulation to investigate particle deformation behavior. Dimensional parameters were determined from scanning electron microscopy analysis of focused ion beam-fabricated cross sections of deposited particles to describe the deposition threshold. From Johnson-Cook finite element method simulation results, there is a direct correlation between the dimensional parameters and the impact velocity. Therefore, the critical velocity can describe the deposition threshold. Moreover, the maximum equivalent plastic strain is also strongly dependent on the impact velocity. Thus, the threshold condition required for particle deposition can instead be represented by the equivalent plastic strain of the particle and substrate. For particle-substrate combinations of similar materials, the substrate is more difficult to deform. Thus, this study establishes that the dominant factor of particle deposition in the cold spray process is the maximum equivalent plastic strain of the substrate, which occurs during impact and deformation.     

Numerical Analysis of Cold Spray Particles Impacting Behavior by the Eulerian Method: A Review

Numerical simulations have been widely used to study particles impacting behavior in cold spraying. Among the used simulation methods, the Eulerian frame becomes increasingly attractive for its absence of mesh distortion which happens in the Lagrangian frame. It has been proved that particle deformation behaviors upon impacting calculated by the Eulerian method are well comparable to the experimental observations. In this review article, the literature on modeling particle impacting by the Eulerian method was summarized. In the second part, the Eulerian method was detailedly introduced. In the third part, the particle/substrate impacting behavior, and its influencing factors, i.e., mesh resolution, particle impacting velocity, preheating (particle or/and substrate) and oxide film, were summarized. Additionally, the prediction of critical velocity and residual stresses by using the Eulerian method was also discussed in detail. Finally, the current issues, problems and prospects existing in the Eulerian simulations of particle impacting were explored.     

Examination on the Calculation Method for Modeling the Multi-Particle Impact Process in Cold Spraying

In this study, a systematic examination on multi-particle impact process in cold spraying was conducted for copper material by using different methods including Lagrangian method, Eulerian method, and smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method. It is found that for the Lagrangian method, the meshing size and the element type significantly affect the resultant output. Moreover, the particle deformation behavior calculated by Eulerian method is more comparable to the experimental observation than that by Lagrangian method. Further study on the multi-particle impact process also demonstrates that Eulerian method is superior to Lagrangian method. In addition, the preliminary investigation on the mesh-free-based SPH method shows that this technique can provide a relatively reasonable result in the particle deformation behavior and the weight of the independent SPH particle exerts limited effects on the resultant output. Furthermore, owing to the meshfree feature and the appropriate solution to the contact interface, SPH method can also be employed to simulate the multi-particle impact process in cold spraying.     

Influence of Spray Materials and Their Surface Oxidation on the Critical Velocity in Cold Spraying

The critical velocity is an important parameter in cold spraying, which determines the deposition efficiency under a given spray condition. The critical velocity depends not only on materials types, but also on particle temperature and oxidation conditions. In the present paper, three types of materials including copper, 316L stainless steel, Monel alloy were used to deposit coatings by cold spraying. The critical velocities of spray materials were determined using a novel measurement method. The oxygen content in the three powders was changed by isothermal oxidation at ambient atmosphere. The effect of oxygen content on the critical velocity was examined. It was found that the critical velocity in cold spray was significantly influenced by particle oxidation condition besides materials properties. The critical velocity of Cu particles changed from about 300 m/s to over 610 m/s with the change of oxygen content in powder. It is evident that the materials properties influence the critical velocity more remarkable at low oxygen content than at high oxygen content. The results suggest that with a severely oxidized powder the critical velocity tends to be dominated by oxide on the powder surface rather than materials properties.     

An analysis of the cold spray process and its coatings

In this study, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and extensive spray tests were performed for detailed analyses of the cold spray process. The modeling of the gas and particle flow field for different nozzle geometries and process parameters in correlation with the results of the experiments reveal that adhesion only occurs when the powder particles exceed a critical impact velocity that is specific to the spray material. For spherical copper powder with low oxygen content, the critical velocity was determined to be about 570 m/s. With nitrogen as the process gas and particle grain sizes from 5–25 μm, deposition efficiencies of more than 70% were achieved. The cold sprayed coatings show negligible porosity and oxygen contents comparable to the initial powder feedstock. Therefore, properties such as the electrical conductivity at room temperature correspond to those of the bulk material. The methods presented here can also be applied to develop strategies for cold spraying of other materials such as zinc, stainless steel, or nickel-based super-alloys.     

Bonding mechanism in cold gas spraying

Cold gas spraying is a relatively new coating process by which coatings can be produced without significant heating of the sprayed powder. In contrast to the well-known thermal spray processes such as flame, arc, and plasma spraying, in cold spraying there is no melting of particles prior to impact on the substrate. The adhesion of particles in this process is due solely to their kinetic energy upon impact. Experimental investigations show that successful bonding is achieved only above a critical particle velocity, whose value depends on the temperature and the thermomechanical properties of the sprayed material. This paper supplies a hypothesis for the bonding of particles in cold gas spraying, by making use of numerical modelling of the deformation during particle impact. The results of modelling are assessed with respect to the experimentally evaluated critical velocities, impact morphologies and strengths of coatings. The analysis demonstrates that bonding can be attributed to adiabatic shear instabilities which occur at the particle surface at or beyond the critical velocity. On the basis of this criterion, critical velocities can be predicted and used to optimise process parameters for various materials.     

A Numerical Investigation of the Cold Spray Process Using Underexpanded and Overexpanded Jets

The impact velocity of particles during the cold spray process is crucial to the optimisation of coating quality and spraying costs. In the present investigation, both underexpanded and overexpanded impinging jets are employed to accelerate Aluminium particles towards a substrate. The impact velocity and angle statistics are generated by injecting polydisperse particles into the jet and the particle dynamics are characterised using the velocity and trajectories of the particles. The optimum particle size corresponding to the maximum impact speed is recast in terms of the Stokes number and shown to have a value of approximately one. Finally, a normal shock model is proposed which may be employed to estimate the particle impact speed using the nozzle exit conditions. It is shown that owing to artificial viscosity associated with the total variation diminishing scheme, this model tends to underestimate the speed.