Topology optimization of continuum structures with displacement constraints based on meshless method

In this paper, the element free Galerkin method (EFG) is applied to carry out the topology optimization of continuum structures with displacement constraints. In the EFG method, the matrices in the discretized system equations are assembled based on the quadrature points. In the sense, the relative density at Gauss quadrature point is employed as design variable. Considering the minimization of weight as an objective function, the mathematical formulation of the topology optimization subjected to displacement constraints is developed using the solid isotropic microstructures with penalization interpolation scheme. Moreover, the approximate explicit function expression between topological variables and displacement constraints are derived. Sensitivity of the objective function is derived based on the adjoint method. Three numerical examples are used to demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method.     

Topology optimization using bi-directional evolutionary structural optimization based on the element-free Galerkin method

In this article, the bi-directional evolutionary structural optimization (BESO) method based on the element-free Galerkin (EFG) method is presented for topology optimization of continuum structures. The mathematical formulation of the topology optimization is developed considering the nodal strain energy as the design variable and the minimization of compliance as the objective function. The EFG method is used to derive the shape functions using the moving least squares approximation. The essential boundary conditions are enforced by the method of Lagrange multipliers. Several topology optimization problems are presented to show the effectiveness of the proposed method. Many issues related to topology optimization of continuum structures, such as chequerboard patterns and mesh dependency, are studied in the examples.     

Sensitivity analysis and shape optimization based on FE–EFG coupled method

By use of 4-node isoparametric quadrangle interface element between finite element (FE) and meshless regions, a collocation approach is introduced to couple firstly FE and element-free Galerkin (EFG) method in this paper. By taking derivative of discreteness equilibrium equation at interface element with respect to design variable, a numerical method for discreteness-based shape design sensitivity analysis in interface element is obtained. The design sensitivity analysis (DSA) of coupled FE–EFG method is achieved by employing the DSA of nodal displacement at the interface element. The numerical method presented is testified by examples. It can be observed excellent agreement between the numerical results and the analytical solution. Finally the shape optimization of fillet is achieved by using coupled FE–EFG method. The result obtained show that imposing of the essential boundary condition is easy to implement, the computational time is reduced and the distortion of mesh is avoided.     

Limit analysis of plates using the EFG method and second‐order cone programming

The meshless element‐free Galerkin (EFG) method is extended to allow computation of the limit load of plates. A kinematic formulation that involves approximating the displacement field using the moving least‐squares technique is developed. Only one displacement variable is required for each EFG node, ensuring that the total number of variables in the resulting optimization problem is kept to a minimum, with far fewer variables being required compared with finite element formulations using compatible elements. A stabilized conforming nodal integration scheme is extended to plastic plate bending problems. The evaluation of integrals at nodal points using curvature smoothing stabilization both keeps the size of the optimization problem small and also results in stable and accurate solutions. Difficulties imposing essential boundary conditions are overcome by enforcing displacements at the nodes directly. The formulation can be expressed as the problem of minimizing a sum of Euclidean norms subject to a set of equality constraints. This non‐smooth minimization problem can be transformed into a form suitable for solution using second‐order cone programming. The procedure is applied to several benchmark beam and plate problems and is found in practice to generate good upper‐bound solutions for benchmark problems. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nonlocal damage modelling using the element-free Galerkin method in the frame of finite strains

Prediction of size effects has been a challenging problem since some experiments found the size effect in material damage. Both material model and numerical algorithm have to be improved to consider the complex damage process. In the present paper we implement element-free Galerkin (EFG) method for a strain-gradient based nonlocal damage model and use it to analyze ductile material damage process. The EFG algorithm overcomes some drawbacks of the FEM in convergence of numerical iteration due to large deformations as well as evaluation of the higher-order gradients of the plastic strain. The numerical benchmarks show that the EFG method for the nonlocal damage model provides more stable numerical results. The size effect in notched specimens can be predicted in the computations. Both ductile fracture in tensile specimens as well as their size effects are investigated and the computational results agree very well with experiments.     

Analyzing three-dimensional potential problems with the improved element-free Galerkin method

The potential problem is one of the most important partial differential equations in engineering mathematics. A potential problem is a function that satisfies a given partial differential equation and particular boundary conditions. It is independent of time and involves only space coordinates, as in Poisson’s equation or the Laplace equation with Dirichlet, Neumann, or mixed conditions. When potential problems are very complex, both in their field variable variation and boundary conditions, they usually cannot be solved by analytical solutions. The element-free Galerkin (EFG) method is a promising method for solving partial differential equations on which the trial and test functions employed in the discretization process result from moving least-squares (MLS) interpolants. In this paper, by employing improved moving least-squares (IMLS) approximation, we derive the formulas for an improved element-free Galerkin (IEFG) method for three-dimensional potential problems. Because there are fewer coefficients in the IMLS approximation than in the MLS approximation, and in the IEFG method, fewer nodes are selected in the entire domain than in the conventional EFG method, the IEFG method should result in a higher computing speed.     

Computational algorithms and applications of element-free Galerkin methods for nonlocal damage models

In using complex material models, especially the strain-gradient-dependent damage models, the convergence of the finite element computation increasingly becomes a problem. Due to large strains in damaging elements the computation may often result in non-convergence. For the higher-order gradient plasticity the special element formulation would often be necessary, which causes additional difficulties in implementation and computations. In recent years, meshless methods have been developed as an alternative to the finite element method (FEM) and can overcome some known shortcomings of FEM. In the present paper an algorithm of element-free Galerkin (EFG) methods for strain-gradient based nonlocal damage models has been developed and used to simulate ductile material damage. The method provides a reliable and robust results for material failure with large damage zones. The strain gradient-dependent terms can be evaluated from the direct differentiation. The investigation confirms that the nonlocal damage model with element-free Galerkin method is suitable for computing the damage problems and predicting the size effects. With the help of the meshless method, material failure in specimens as well as the size effects are predicted accurately.     

A natural neighbour-based moving least-squares approach for the element-free Galerkin method

The element-free Galerkin method (EFG) and the natural element method (NEM) are two well known and widely used meshless methods. Whereas the EFG method can represent moving boundaries like cracks only by modifying the weighting functions the NEM requires an adaptation of the nodal set-up. But on the other hand the NEM is computationally more efficient than EFG. In this paper a new concept for the automatic adjustment of nodal influence domains in the EFG method is presented in order to obtain an efficiency similar to the NEM. This concept is based on the definition of natural neighbours for each meshless node which can be determined from a Voronoi diagram of the nodal set-up. In this approach adapted nodal influence domains are obtained by interpolating the distances to the natural neighbours depending on the direction. In the paper we show that this concept leads, especially for problems with grading node density, to a reduced number of influencing nodes at the interpolation points and consequently a significant reduction of the numerical effort. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analyzing elastoplastic large deformation problems with the complex variable element-free Galerkin method

Using the complex variable moving least-squares (CVMLS) approximation, a complex variable element-free Galerkin (CVEFG) method for two-dimensional elastoplastic large deformation problems is presented. This meshless method has higher computational precision and efficiency because in the CVMLS approximation, the trial function of a two-dimensional problem is formed with a one-dimensional basis function. For two-dimensional elastoplastic large deformation problems, the Galerkin weak form is employed to obtain its equation system. The penalty method is used to impose essential boundary conditions. Then the corresponding formulae of the CVEFG method for two-dimensional elastoplastic large deformation problems are derived. In comparison with the conventional EFG method, our study shows that the CVEFG method has higher precision and efficiency. For illustration purpose, a few selected numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the advantages of the CVEFG method.     

Large‐scale topology optimization using preconditioned Krylov subspace methods with recycling

The computational bottleneck of topology optimization is the solution of a large number of linear systems arising in the finite element analysis. We propose fast iterative solvers for large three‐dimensional topology optimization problems to address this problem. Since the linear systems in the sequence of optimization steps change slowly from one step to the next, we can significantly reduce the number of iterations and the runtime of the linear solver by recycling selected search spaces from previous linear systems. In addition, we introduce a MINRES (minimum residual method) version with recycling (and a short‐term recurrence) to make recycling more efficient for symmetric problems. Furthermore, we discuss preconditioning to ensure fast convergence. We show that a proper rescaling of the linear systems reduces the huge condition numbers that typically occur in topology optimization to roughly those arising for a problem with constant density. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our solvers by solving a topology optimization problem with more than a million unknowns on a fast PC. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The topology optimization design for continuum structures based on the element free Galerkin method

In this paper, the element free Galerkin method (EFG), combined with evolutionary structural optimization method (ESO), is applied to carry out the topology optimization of the continuum structures. Considering the deletion criterion based on the stresses, the mathematical formulation of the topology optimization is developed. The objective function of this model is the minimized weight. Several numerical examples are used to prove the feasibility of the approach adopted in this paper. And the examples show the simplicity and fast convergence of the proposed method.     

RMVT-based meshless collocation and element-free Galerkin methods for the quasi-3D free vibration analysis of multilayered composite and FGM plates

A meshless collocation (MC) and an element-free Galerkin (EFG) method, using the differential reproducing kernel (DRK) interpolation, are developed for the quasi-three-dimensional (3D) free vibration analysis of simply supported, multilayered composite and functionally graded material (FGM) plates. Based on the Reissner Mixed Variational Theorem (RMVT), the strong and weak formulations of this problem are derived, in which the material properties of each individual FGM layer, constituting the plate, are assumed to obey the power-law distributions of the volume fractions of the constituents. The system motion equations of both the RMVT-based MC and EFG methods are obtained using these strong and weak formulations, respectively, in combination with the DRK interpolation, in which the shape functions of the unknown functions satisfy the Kronecker delta properties, and the essential boundary conditions can be readily applied, exactly like the implementation in the finite element method. In the illustrative examples, the natural frequencies and their corresponding modal field variables varying along the thickness coordinate of the plate are studied. It is shown that the solutions obtained using these methods are in excellent agreement with the available 3D solutions, and their convergence rates are rapid.     

连续体结构的变密度拓扑优化方法研究

为了实现使连续体结构的体积约束和柔顺度最小的拓扑优化及解决采用经典变密度法引起的结构优化结果存在如灰度单元、棋盘格等数值不稳定问题，提出了一种新的拓扑优化方法。首先，采用改进的固体各向同性材料惩罚法作为材料插值方案，建立结构拓扑优化模型；其次，通过引入基于高斯权重函数的敏度过滤法和设计新灰度单元抑制算子来解决数值不稳定问题；最后，借助优化准则法求解优化模型。通过算例分析可知：新策略可以改进拓扑优化方法；新的拓扑优化方法具有收敛速度较快、能更好地获取柔顺度小且拓扑构型好的优化结构和抑制灰度单元产生等优势。研究结果为其他连续体结构的拓扑优化研究提供了新思路。     

考虑位移要求的大型三维连续体结构拓扑优化数值技术研究

大型复杂三维结构拓扑优化设计既具有理论意义,又具有重要的应用价值。基于等效转换的非奇异的结构优化模型,研究结构位移要求的最小结构重量设计问题。首先,介绍了位移约束的三维结构优化准则和公式。而后,为了提高拥有数万个单元以上的三维结构的计算效率,结合结构位移计算的迭代方法,在分析用于结构特性参数计算模型的基础上,建立了一套三维结构拓扑优化的求解策略和算法。最后,给出了几个典型和复杂的三维结构的拓扑优化设计算例。算例表明求解策略和算法是正确和有效的,且具有广泛的工程应用前景。     

基于最小二乘方法的索网反射面形状精度调整

根据大射电望远镜索网主动反射面的变形调整要求,提出了基于最小二乘优化模型的迭代调整方法。优化模型以节点载荷增量为设计变量,追求调整后的节点位置相对于设计抛物面的残量平方和最小。线性化残量函数便可得到调整所需产生的位移场。采用基于弹性悬链线解析表达式的悬索单元建立了索网反射面的力学模型,得到了节点载荷增量与节点位移之间的关系;从而可以根据给定的变形场得到对应的调整力增量。数值算例表明所给调整方法具有很好的收敛速度。     

RMVT-based meshless collocation and element-free Galerkin methods for the quasi-3D analysis of multilayered composite and FGM plates

A meshless collocation (MC) and an element-free Galerkin (EFG) method, using the differential reproducing kernel (DRK) interpolation, are developed for the quasi-three-dimensional (3D) analysis of simply supported, multilayered composite and functionally graded material (FGM) plates. The strong and weak formulations of this 3D static problem are derived on the basis of the Reissner mixed variational theorem (RMVT) where the strong formulation consists of the Euler–Lagrange equations of the problem and its associated boundary conditions, and the weak formulation represents a weighted-residual integral in which the differentiation is equally distributed among the primary field variables and their variations. The early proposed DRK interpolation is used to construct the primary field variables where the Kronecker delta properties are satisfied, and the essential boundary conditions can be readily applied, exactly like the implementation in the finite element method. The system equations of both the RMVT-based MC and EFG methods are obtained using these strong and weak formulations, respectively, in combination with the DRK interpolation. In the illustrative examples, it is shown that the solutions obtained from these methods are in excellent agreement with the available 3D solutions, and their convergence rates are rapid.     

考虑结构稳定性的变密度拓扑优化方法

将稳定性问题引入传统变密度法中,可实现包含稳定性约束的平面模型结构拓扑优化。以单元相对密度为设计变量,结构柔度最小为目标函数,结构体积和失稳载荷因子为约束条件建立优化问题数学模型,提出了一种考虑结构稳定性的变密度拓扑优化方法。通过分析结构柔度、体积、失稳载荷因子对设计变量的灵敏度,并基于拉格朗日乘子法和Kuhn-Tucker条件,推导了优化问题的迭代准则。同时,利用基于约束条件的泰勒展开式求解优化准则中的拉格朗日乘子。通过推导平面四节点四边形单元几何刚度矩阵的显式表达式,得到了优化准则中的几何应变能。最后,通过算例对提出的方法进行了验证,并与不考虑稳定性的传统变密度拓扑优化方法进行对比,结果表明该方法能显著提高拓扑优化结果的稳定性。研究结果对细长受压结构的优化设计有重要指导意义,对结构的稳定性设计有一定参考价值。     

Optimization of a pipe end upsetting process

A method is proposed for the optimization, by finite element analysis, of design variables of sheet metal forming processes. The method is useful when the non-controllable process parameters (e.g. the coefficient of friction or the material properties) can be modelled as random variables, introducing a degree of uncertainty into any process solution. The method is suited for problems with large FEM computational times and small process window. The problem is formulated as the minimization of a cost function, subject to a reliability constraint. The cost function is indirectly optimized through a “metamodel”, built by “Kriging” interpolation. The reliability, i.e. the failure probability, is assessed by a binary logistic regression analysis of the simulation results. The method is applied to the u-channel forming and springback problem presented in Numisheet 1993, modified by handling the blankholder force as a time-dependent variable.     

Topology design with optimized,self-adaptive materials

Significant performance improvements can be obtained if the topology of an elastic structure is allowed to vary in shape optimization problems. We study the optimal shape design of a two-dimensional elastic continuum for minimum compliance subject to a constraint on the total volume of material. The macroscopic version of this problem is not well-posed if no restrictions are placed on the structure topoiogy; relaxation of the optimization problem via quasiconvexification or homogenization methods is required. The effect of relaxation is to introduce a perforated microstructure that must be optimized simultaneously with the macroscopic distribution of material. A combined analytical-computational approach is proposed to solve the relaxed optimization problem. Both stress and displacement analysis methods are presented. Since rank-2 layered composites are known to achieve optimal energy bounds, we restrict the design space to this class of microstructures whose effective properties can easily be determined in explicit form. We develop a series of reduced problems by sequentially interchanging extremization operators and analytically optimizing the microstructural design fields. This results in optimization problems involving the distribution of an adaptive material that continuously optimizes its microstructure in response to the current state of stress or strain. A further reduced problem, involving only the response field, can be obtained in the stress-based approach, but the requisite interchange of extremization operators is not valid in the case of the displacement-based model. Finite element optimization procedures based on the reduced displacement formulation are developed and numerical solutions are presented. Care must be taken in selecting the discrete function spaces for the design density and displacement response, since the reduced problem is a two-field, mixed variational problem. An improper choice for the solution space leads to instabilities in the optimal design similar to those encountered in mixed formulations of the Stokes problem.