Residual stresses in friction stir welded parts of complex geometry

Residual stresses play a key role on the mechanics underlying the fatigue crack growth propagation of welded joints. Indeed, compressive residual stresses may induce a beneficial enhancement of the fatigue life under loading condition whereas tensile residual stresses may act to increase the stress distribution at crack tip, resulting in a life-threatening condition of the welded structure. In-process distortion and final geometry of welded joints are also affected by residual stresses. In this paper, the longitudinal residual stress distributions in friction stir welding (FSW) joints were investigated for butt and skin–stringer geometries, including lap and T configurations. To measure residual stresses, the cut-compliance and the inverse weight-function methodologies were adapted for skin–stringer FSW geometries via finite element analysis. AA2024-T4 and AA7075-T6 aluminum alloys were used to weld dissimilar skin–stringer joints whereas butt joints were made of AA2024. The effect of most relevant process parameters as well as the cooling during welding process was also investigated for a better understanding of welding residual stresses. Our findings suggest that FSW of complex skin–stringer geometries produces higher residual stresses than those of butt joints, and that the cooling water flux further reduces residual stresses. Changes of process parameters did not affect markedly residual stress distribution.     

Mechanical properties of friction stir welding and metal inert gas welding of Al-Zn aluminum alloy joints

In this work, an Al-Zn aluminum alloy was welded using friction stir welding (FSW) and metal inert gas (MIG) welding methods. The comparison between microstructure and mechanical properties of the two different joints was mainly discussed. Results showed that defect-free joints can be obtained using both the two welding methods. Due to much less heat input, grains of the stir zone (SZ) of the FSW joint are finer than those of the MIG joint, resulting into higher hardness. Tensile strength of the MIG and FSW joints respectively reaches 68.6 and 73.2% of the BM. The FSW joints own much better fatigue properties than the MIG joints and reach its infinite life at using 90 MPa. The FSW joint owns two cracks during the fatigue test.     

Evaluation of crack nucleation site and mechanical properties for friction stir welded butt joint in 2024-T3 aluminum alloy

In this paper, metallographic observations, hardness measurement, and static and fatigue tests were conducted to investigate the discontinuity states which become crack nucleation sites in friction stir welded butt joints in 2-mm-thick 2024-T3 aluminum alloy and static and fatigue properties of the joint. Because different types of surface finish can be used depending on the application of the joint, several types of surface conditions were tested to evaluate their effect on crack nucleation sites and static and fatigue life. Indentation hardness tests revealed that typical hardness reduction is not necessarily observed on the section of the welding line. Based on fatigue test results, it was confirmed that there are several types of crack nucleation sites for friction stir welding (FSW) joints depending on the surface finish, and the features of the fracture surface also differ depending on the site. Furthermore, the type of discontinuity state affects the fatigue life of the FSW joint.     

Effective predictions of ultimate tensile strength,peak temperature and grain size of friction stir welded AA2024 alloy joints

A series of welds were made by friction stir welding (FSW) under different welding and rotation speeds. A 2D ultimate tensile strength (UTS) map was developed based on various experimental data to predict the UTS of friction stir welded AA2024 alloy joints. The accuracy of the UTS map was evaluated by comparing the estimated UTS with the corresponding experimental results from the FSW of the same material available in the open literature. Analytical models were developed to estimate the peak temperature and grain size in the nugget zone. The predicted optimal peak temperature and welding and rotation speeds for AA2024 were within the windows of 400–465 °C, 175–350 mm/min and 800–1,200 rpm, respectively, under which the joint tensile strength could be higher than 458 MPa (about 94.6 % of the base metal) and the estimated average grain sizes in the nugget zone were about 2–3.9 μm.     

Design of tool system for the external nonrotational shoulder assisted friction stir welding and its experimental validations on 2219-T6 aluminum alloy

The nonrotational shoulder assisted friction stir welding (NRSA-FSW) is still in the feasibility study stage. To reveal details in the tool system designing and highlight advantages of this novel technology, the tool system for the NRSA-FSW was designed and utilized to weld high-strength aluminum alloy 2219-T6 for validations. Compared with the joints welded by the friction stir welding (FSW) without assistance of the nonrotational shoulder (NRS), the effect of the NRS on the weld formation and mechanical properties was illustrated. At a constant welding speed 100 mm/min, defect-free joints can only be obtained at the tool rotation speed 800 rpm by the FSW without assistance of the NRS, but the NRSA-FSW can produce defect-free joints in a wider range of tool rotation speeds 600–900 rpm. The NRS prevented all plasticized materials from escaping from the stirring zone, thus the weld nugget zone transformed from the basin-type formation to the spherical formation with increasing of the stirring effect when the tool rotation speed increased gradually. For joints welded by these two FSW processes, both the tensile strength and the elongation showed nearly the same trend with the tool rotation speed, but the NRSA-FSW can produce joints with the maximum tensile strength in a wider range. Compared with the maximum joint efficiency 71.2 % of the FSW without assistance of the NRS, the maximum tensile strength obtained by the NRSA-FSW also reached 69.0 % of the base material. All tensile specimens machined from defect-free joints fractured at the weakest region with minimum Vicker’s hardness; while for those joints with cavity defects, the fracture occurred at the defect location.     

Friction stir butt welding thin aluminum alloy sheets

0.8-mm-thick alclad 2024-T4 aluminum alloy sheets were friction stir butt welded. A 15-mm diameter shoulder tool was used to guarantee sufficient heat input during welding. A 0.08-mm shoulder plunge depth was adopted to reduce sheet thickness reduction. Sound joints were obtained at rotating speeds from 400 to 1000 rpm and welding speeds from 50 to 150 mm/min. A thickness reduction of 6% was achieved at 1000 rpm and 50 mm/min. Secondary phases firstly precipitated at the black lines in the stir zone (SZ). The hardness of the SZ showed a decrease about 6% compared with the base metal. A maximum tensile strength of 399.5 MPa and an elongation of 5.6% were achieved at 1000 rpm and 150 mm/min. The fracture morphologies showed typical ductile fracture mode.     

Aluminum 6060-T6 friction stir welded butt joints: fatigue resistance with different tools and feed rates

The fatigue behavior of AA6060-T6 friction stir welded butt joints was investigated. The joints were produced by using both a standard and a threaded tri-flute cylindrical-tool with flat shoulder. The friction stir welding process was carried out using different feed rates. Preliminary tensile tests, micrograph analyses and hardness profile measurements across the welds were carried out. Welded and unwelded fatigue samples were tested under axial loading (R = 0.1) with upper limits of 10⁴ and 10⁵ cycles, using threaded and unthreaded (standard) tools at different feed rates. The best tensile and fatigue performance was obtained using the standard tool at low feed rate.     

Friction stir welding of AZ61A magnesium alloy

This paper deals with the development of an empirical relationship to predict tensile strength of friction stir welded AZ61A magnesium alloy. The process parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, axial force and tool pin profile play a major role in deciding the tensile strength. The response surface method (RSM) was used to develop the empirical relationship. The four-factor, five-level central composite design was used to minimize the number of experimental conditions. The developed empirical relationship can be effectively used to predict tensile strength of friction stir welded AZ61A magnesium alloy joints at 95 % confidence level.     

A study on natural aging behavior and mechanical properties of friction stir-welded AA6061-T6 plates

Mechanical properties, microstructural events, residual stresses, and aging behavior of friction stir-welded AA6061-T6 were investigated in this work. Microstructural and mechanical characterizations of the friction stir-welded joints in as-welded and post-welded conditions were made by means of optical metallography, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction for determination of residual stresses, tensile testing, and hardness measurements. It was found that weld strength and hardness variations after welding are mainly dependent on the imposed heat input per unit length. Besides, the kinetics of natural aging in the welded samples was found to be noticeable within the first 14 days, and its effect decreases considerably in longer aging durations. The residual stress measurements show that subsequent natural aging leads to considerable relaxation of residual stress of about 22 MPa, while this effect is particularly significant in the stir zone and the thermomechanically affected zone.     

Investigating the formation of intermetallic compounds during friction stir welding of magnesium alloy to aluminum alloy in air and under liquid nitrogen

This research demonstrates the use of submerged friction stir welding under liquid nitrogen as an alternative and improved method for creating fine-grained welds, and hence, to alleviate formation of intermetallic phases. Magnesium alloy and aluminum alloy were joined by friction stir welding in two environments, namely air and liquid nitrogen, with 400 rpm rotation and 50 mm/min travel speed. The temperature profile, microstructure, scanning electron microscope energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis and hardness were evaluated. In the stir zone of air-welded specimen, formation of brittle intermetallic compounds causes the weld to crack. These phases were formed because of constitutional liquation. The stir zone of under liquid nitrogen-welded specimen showed that formation of intermetallic compounds is suppressed significantly because of lower heat input.     

Effects of welding speed on microstructures and mechanical properties of AA2219-T6 welded by the reverse dual-rotation friction stir welding

Reverse dual-rotation friction stir welding (RDR-FSW) is a novel FSW technology in which the tool pin and the assisted shoulder rotates reversely, thus it has the capability to obtain appropriate welding conditions through adjusting the rotating tool pin and surrounding assisted shoulder independently. In the present study, a RDR-FSW tool system was designed and successfully applied to weld high strength aluminum alloy 2219-T6, and the effects of welding speed on microstructures and mechanical properties were investigated in detail. At a constant rotation speed of 800 rpm for both the rotating tool pin and the reversely rotating assisted shoulder, defect-free joints were obtained at welding speeds ranging from 50 to 150 mm/min, while a cavity defect appeared at the three-phase confluction on the advancing side when the welding speed increased to 200 mm/min. With increasing of the welding speed, the width of the softened region decreased, but the minimum microhardness value increased gradually. When compared with the joints welded by the conventional FSW, there is only a minor variation of the Vickers hardness across the stirring zone in the joint welded by the RDR-FSW. The maximum tensile strength 328 MPa (73.7 % of the base material) was obtained at the welding speed of 150 mm/min, while the elongation reached its maximum 7.0 % (60.9 % of the base material) at the welding speed of 100 mm/min. All defect-free joints were fractured at the weakest region with the minimum Vickers hardness, while for the joint with cavity defects the fracture occurred at the defect location. The tensile fracture was in the ductile fracture mode.     

温度对搅拌摩擦焊接接头摩擦磨损性能的影响

通过对搅拌摩擦焊过程中铝合金板上各特征点在不同焊接参数的温度变化规律的检测,研究搅拌摩擦焊接参数对焊接过程温度场的影响,搅拌摩擦焊焊接接头的摩擦磨损行为,以及搅拌摩擦焊接头的摩擦磨损性能随温度的变化趋势。结果表明:在搅拌头旋转速度一定时,各特征点的温度峰值会随焊接速度的增加而降低,在焊接速度一定时,特征点的温度峰值会随搅拌头旋转速度的增加而升高;搅拌摩擦焊接头磨损表面呈现轻微的疲劳磨损特征,无明显的表层剥落开裂迹象;试样的磨损量与接头区域的焊缝成型有密切关系,而焊缝的成型质量与温度场的分布有密切联系,试验表明温度场梯度越小,磨损量越小。     

Influences of rotation speed on microstructures and mechanical properties of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy joints fabricated by self-reacting friction stir welding tool

A 6061-T6 aluminum alloy was self-reacting friction stir welded by using the specially designed tool with unequal shoulder diameters at a constant welding speed of 150 mm/min to investigate the effect of rotation speed on microstructure and mechanical properties of the joints. Excessive flash on the bottom surface of the joint and groove defects on both surfaces of the joint were formed when the lower shoulder diameter was much smaller. The suitable shoulder sizes were determined as 16 and 18 mm in lower shoulder diameter and upper shoulder diameter, respectively. The grain size and the dislocation density in the weld nugget zone (WNZ) increased with increasing rotation speed. The tensile strength of joints first increased with increasing rotating speed and then decreased remarkably as a result of the formation of void defect. The joints welded at lower rotation speeds were fractured in the thermal mechanically affected zone (TMAZ). However, the fracture locations of the defect-free joints were changed to the heat affected zone (HAZ) at higher rotation speeds.     

Predictions of the optimized friction stir welding process parameters for joining AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy using preheating system

The scope of this investigation is to evaluate the effect of welding parameters on the mechanical properties and microstructural features of 3-mm-thick AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy subjected to gas heating system as a preheating source during friction stir welding. Toward this end, a gas heating system was designed to heat up the weld seam just ahead of rotating tool to soften the material before being stirred. Three welding parameters, five levels, and a central composite design (CCD) have been used to minimize the number of experimental conditions. The joining parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, and shoulder diameter have a significant influence on determining the mechanical properties of the welded joints. It was found that using preheating system mostly can result in higher total heat input into the weld joint and effectively reduces the formation of defects when unsuitable process parameters were used. Also, an attempt has been made to establish the mathematical model to predict the tensile strength and microhardness of the joints. The optimal welding conditions to maximize the final responses were investigated and reported. The results show that the joint fabricated at a rotational speed of 1,050 rpm, welding speed of 100 mm/min, and shoulder diameter of 14 mm exhibited higher mechanical properties compared to other joints.     

搅拌摩擦焊工艺参数对2198铝锂合金焊缝成形及接头力学性能的影响

对2198铝锂合金薄板进行了搅拌摩擦焊试验,分析了搅拌头旋转速度和焊接速度对焊缝成形及接头力学性能的影响。结果表明:旋转速度(n)与焊接速度(v)的比值大于15.7时,能形成表面成形良好,且内部致密无缺陷的焊缝;接头焊核区形成了细小的等轴晶,前进侧热力影响区大部分为等轴状晶粒,后退侧热力影响区的板条状组织发生了变形,其周围出现了细晶粒;焊接速度为30mm·min-1时,接头的抗拉强度随旋转速度的增大而变小,其最大值为432.17MPa,焊缝的硬度低于母材的,热力影响区的硬度最低,焊核区的硬度略高于热力影响区的。随着n/v的增大,热影响区的软化区间变宽。     

Evaluation of the metallurgical and mechanical properties of friction-welded joints of dissimilar metal combinations AISI2205/Cu

In this study, the joining performances of AISI2205/Cu friction-welded joints were studied using different friction pressures (35, 50, and 65 MPa) and friction times (6, 9, and 12 s). The microstructural properties of welded samples were examined by scanning electron microscopy. In order to determine the phases that occurred during welding, welded samples were examined with energy dispersive spectrometry and X-ray diffraction analysis. The microhardness across the interface of samples was measured, and also the strength of the joints was determined with tensile tests. The experimental results indicate that the tensile strength of friction-welded AISI2205/Cu components were significantly affected by joining friction pressure and friction time selected.     

焊接残余应力对超声波冲击处理焊接接头疲劳性能的影响

采用含高值焊接残余应力的非承载纵向角接接头进行了Q235B钢焊态与超声波冲击态的疲劳对比试验,研究了焊接残余应力对超声冲击处理焊接接接头疲劳性能的影响规律。结果表明:焊接残余应力对超声波冲击处理后焊接接头疲劳性能的影响较小。使用不含高值焊接残余应力的小试件来评估超声波冲击处理对相同接头形式及板厚的大型焊接结构疲劳性能的改善程度可能是偏于安全的。     

海洋结构钢焊接接头低周疲劳强度的研究

对进口结构钢A537和国产结构钢E36模拟节点热点处应力状态制成接头试件,采用极大似然性原理组织试验,考察材料、介质（空气和海水）、工艺（焊后或焊修）对接头疲劳强度的影响,并获得这两种钢的焊接接头的概率-应力范围-寿命曲线（P-S-N）,对比管节点疲劳试验结构,表明“焊接接头疲劳寿命相对于管节点疲劳试验的启裂寿命”观点是安全的。     

Fatigue Resistance and Failure Behavior of Penetration and Non-Penetration Laser Welded Lap Joints

Penetration and non-penetration lap laser welding is the joining method for assembling side facade panels of railway passenger cars,while their fatigue performances and the difference between them are not completely understood.In this study,the fatigue resistance and failure behavior of penetration 1.5+0.8-P and non-penetration 0.8+1.5-N laser welded lap joints prepared with 0.8 mm and 1.5 mm cold-rolled 301L plates were investigated.The weld beads showed a solidification microstructure of primary ferrite with good thermal cracking resistance,and their hardness was lower than that of the plates.The 1.5+0.8-P joint exhibited better fatigue resistance to low stress amplitudes,whereas the 0.8+1.5-N joint showed greater resistance to high stress amplitudes.The failure modes of 0.8+1.5-N and 1.5+0.8-P joints were 1.5 mm and 0.8 mm lower lap plate fracture,respectively,and the primary cracks were initiated at welding fusion lines on the lap surface.There were long plastic ribs on the penetration plate fracture,but not on the non-penetration plate fracture.The fatigue resistance stresses in the crack initiation area of the penetration and non-penetration plates calculated based on the mean fatigue limits are 408 MPa and 326 MPa,respectively,which can be used as reference stress for the fatigue design of the laser welded structures.The main reason for the difference in fatigue performance between the two laser welded joints was that the asymmetrical heating in the non-penetration plate thickness resulted in higher residual stress near the welding fusion line.     

Statistical aspects of fatigue crack growth life of base metal,weld metal and heat affected zone in FSWed 7075-T651 aluminum alloy

The statistical aspects of fatigue crack growth life of base metal (BM), weld metal (WM) and heat affected zone (HAZ) in friction stir welded (FSWed) 7075-T651 aluminum alloy has been studied by Weibull statistical analysis. The fatigue crack growth tests were performed at room temperature on ASTM standard CT specimens under three different constant stress intensity factor range controls. The main objective of this paper is to investigate the effects of statistical aspects of fatigue crack growth life on stress intensity factor ranges and material properties, namely BM, WM and HAZ specimens. In this work, the Weibull distribution was employed to estimate the statistical aspects of fatigue crack growth life. The shape parameter of Weibull distribution for fatigue crack growth life was significantly affected by material properties and the stress intensity factor range. The scale parameter of WM specimen exhibited the lowest value at all stress intensity factor ranges.