核电厂严重事故下双层安全壳环形空间通风系统延迟投运的放射性后果影响分析

核电厂严重事故工况下,对于具有双层安全壳设计的核电机组,若环形空间通风系统不能正常运转,无法形成负压或无法启动事故过滤器,双层安全壳对放射性物质释放的控制效果将被削弱。鉴于此,本文针对目前国际上多个第三代核电机组采用的双层安全壳设计,考虑安全壳完整并选用NUREG-1465源项作为严重事故源项,计算环形空间通风系统在不同延迟投运场景下放射性物质的环境释放量,同时采用"欧洲用户要求(EUR)"文件提出的有限影响准则对严重事故的放射性后果进行评价,分析环形空间通风系统的延迟投运同"大量释放"间的关系。研究结果可为严重事故下的应急响应行动及放射性后果评价提供参考。     

CANDU6核电厂无过滤安全壳通风模式的研究

CANDU6核电厂早期设计未考虑严重事故对策,在严重事故下,CANDU6核电厂的安全壳容易失效。为了解决这一问题,本文研究了无过滤安全壳通风模式对CANDU6核电厂安全壳的影响。本文选取典型的全厂断电严重事故,利用重水蒸气回收系统作为无过滤安全壳通风的路径,初步研究了该通风模式下对安全壳完整性的保持和对裂变产物源项的滞留能力。研究表明:该通风模式可以有效保持安全壳的完整性,同时,对裂变产物源项也有一定的滞留能力。     

严重事故下气载放射性排放控制研究

为评价"华龙一号"核电厂严重事故下气载放射性排放控制措施的有效性和先进性,开展了"华龙一号"严重事故下气载放射性排放控制研究。首先,介绍了核电厂中放射性物质的产生及放射性物质向环境释放的4个途径。其次,阐述了放射性物质的主要去除机制,包括自然沉积、池式洗涤、过滤和喷淋等,以及各去除机制所涉及的气溶胶行为如气溶胶凝聚、气溶胶沉积和吸湿效应、碘化学反应等,和各去除机制所应用的设备或系统。然后,梳理了"华龙一号"在严重事故工况下所采用的几种放射性释放控制和管理措施,包括双层安全壳与环形空间通风系统、安全壳喷淋系统、安全壳过滤排放系统和严重事故管理导则中针对安全壳旁通释放的管理策略,并对不同措施控制放射性释放的效果进行计算分析。计算结果显示采用相关放射性释放控制措施比未采用时向环境的放射性物质释放能够降低1～3个数量级,说明"华龙一号"的设计及严重事故管理措施,能够有效减少事故下的放射性后果,从而减少气载放射性排放对公众和环境的影响。     

三代核电厂过滤排放系统功能定位分析

安全壳是包容核电厂放射性产物的最后一道屏障。二代改进型核电厂为应对安全壳超压威胁,保证安全壳的完整性,设置了安全壳过滤排放系统,有效降低了安全壳晚期超压风险。HAF102—2016《核动力厂设计安全规定》中增加了关于设计扩展工况的设计要求,核电厂纵深防御层次出现了新的变化。在纵深防御第四层次提出实际消除目标,要求可能导致早期放射性释放或者大量放射性释放的事件序列被实际消除。基于新的设计要求,三代核电厂为应对设计扩展工况,设置了严重事故专用的预防和缓解措施,降低了安全壳超压风险,因此安全壳过滤排放系统的功能及定位需要重新分析和明确。通过分析三代核电厂安全系统的设计及超压风险,从实际消除目标及大量放射性释放安全目标论证的角度,分析得出三代核电厂安全壳过滤排放系统的功能定位。三代核电厂中,安全过滤排放系统主要用于应对剩余风险,不将其作为专设的设计扩展工况缓解措施。     

压水堆事故工况下放射性裂变产物向环境转移和释放的理论计算

本文建立了分析压水堆事故工况下惰性气体、元素碘、甲基碘和气溶胶粒子等气载裂变产物由安全壳向环境转移和释放的多仓室安全壳模型——FIPREA 模型。此模型考虑了单层、双层和半双层三种型式的安全壳中堆芯源项、自然沉积、过滤器捕集、喷淋液吸附及泄漏等因素对气载裂变产物浓度变化的影响。根据此模型编制了分析裂变产物去除及对环境释放情况的计算程序。本程序可用于核电站设计或安全评审时事故释放量的分析计算。     

核电厂大破口失水事故(LBLOCA)始发严重事故释放源项的分析

本文利用一体化的严重事故数据计算分析程序,研究核电厂发生大破口失水(LBLOCA)事故始发严重事故情况下裂变产物的释放、迁移、去除和最终在不同区域的分布等特征。假设核电厂具有双层安全壳设计并且安全壳保持完整性的情况下,计算最终向环境的释放源项。最后利用美国核管会(NRC)的NUREG-1465假设的壳内事故源项的释放份额计算环境释放源项的份额,并对结果进行比较。计算结果可以为应急设施评价源项的选取以及场外后果评价提供参考。     

非能动压水堆安全壳晚期失效严重事故源项模拟研究

利用MELCOR程序模拟大型先进非能动压水堆一回路系统热段中破口失水始发严重事故工况,探究安全壳晚期失效裂变产物的释放行为并进行敏感性分析。结果表明,当安全壳破裂后,94.51%的惰性气体快速从破口释放到环境中,一回路中原先积聚的CsI在余热作用下发生了再次气化,进入安全壳和环境中的份额仅为5.02%和1.45%。热段破口尺寸对裂变产物在一回路和环境中的释放份额影响较大,安全壳破口面积对计算结果不敏感。     

衰变对严重事故条件下裂变产物释放及场外剂量评价影响分析

介绍了某三代核电厂严重事故释放类别,选取会造成大量放射性释放的释放类别和对应的典型严重事故序列,采用MAAP程序计算分析裂变产物向环境释放特性。在此基础上,选取对人员剂量贡献最大的几种核素,计算考虑衰变和不考虑衰变2种情况下,各核素向环境累积释放活度及场址边界500?m处的全身剂量和甲状腺剂量的大小,并分析了衰变对累积释放活度和剂量评价的影响。结果表明:衰变对裂变产物向环境累积释放活度的影响与核素半衰期及事故后开始向环境释放时间有关;半衰期越短,裂变产物开始向环境释放时间越晚,衰变的影响越明显;从场外剂量分析,衰变对全身剂量的影响较甲状腺剂量的影响更明显。      

非能动先进压水堆核电厂严重事故下裂变产物行为研究

非能动先进压水堆核电厂在严重事故下,安全壳可能发生失效,导致大量放射性物质向环境释放。本文针对非能动先进压水堆核电厂可能发生的早期失效、中期失效、晚期失效三种释放类别,建立百万千瓦级非能动先进压水堆的事故分析模型,分别针对自动卸压系统第二级卸压阀误开启,DVI管线上发生当量直径为4英寸的破口,以及热管段发生当量直径为2英寸的破口的典型严重事故序列,在研究事故进程的基础上,分析事故下裂变产物释放和迁移的特性,重点关注惰性气体、挥发性裂变产物和非挥发性裂变产物在核电厂的分布,最终计算释入环境的裂变产物源项。本文分析结果可为严重事故管理以及厂外放射性后果评价提供支持。     

严重事故下安全壳内裂变产物碘影响因素敏感性分析

反应堆发生事故最严重的后果是放射性裂变产物弥散到环境中,为了研究严重事故工况下放射性裂变产物碘在安全壳内的分布特点,本研究假设核电厂已经发生严重事故,一回路裂变产物碘释放到安全壳内。使用事故源项评估程序（ASTEC）构建核电厂安全壳结构模型,并设置边界条件,计算了裂变产物碘在不同pH值、有无金属银注入和气相辐照工况下的化学形态、化学特性、分布情况以及不同化合物的变化趋势。研究结果表明,碱性环境下可以降低安全壳内挥发性碘的生成;银的存在可以增加液相中碘的捕获和降低碘的挥发;气相辐照环境可以提高气相CH₃I 和IO_x的形成。本研究可以为严重事故工况下安全壳内放射性碘的去除提供支持。      

Development of severe accident management guidance (SAMG) for the Canadian CANDU 6 nuclear power plants

This paper discusses the severe accident management guidance (SAMG) development process undertaken for the Canadian CANDU 6 nuclear power plants (NPPs); the customization process of the generic CANDU SAMG for the Point Lepreau NPP is presented. Examples of severe accident management (SAM) guidelines related to containment pressure control are included in this paper. This paper also provides an overview summary of the severe accident analysis program at Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) that complements the SAM guidelines development process for the CANDU 6 NPPs in Canada. These analyses provided insights into the accident progression and basis to develop the SAM guidelines.     

Analysis on containment depressurization under severe accidents for a Chinese 1000 MWe NPP

Containment depressurization has been implemented for many nuclear power plants (NPPs) to mitigate the risk of containment overpressurization induced by steam and gases released in LOCA accidents or generated in molten core concrete interaction (MCCI) during severe accidents. Two accident sequences of large break loss of coolant accident (LB-LOCA) and station blackout (SBO) are selected to evaluate the effectiveness of the containment venting strategy for a Chinese 1000 MWe NPP, including the containment pressure behaviors, which are analyzed with the integral safety analyses code for the selected sequences. Different open/close pressures for the venting system are also investigated to evaluate CsI mass fraction released to the environment for different cases with filtered venting or without filtered venting. The analytical results show that when the containment sprays can't be initiated, the depressurization strategy by using the Containment Filtered Venting System (CFVS) can prevent the containment failure and reduce the amount of CsI released to the environment, and if CFVS is closed at higher pressure, the operation interval is smaller and the radioactive released to the environment is less, and if CFVS open pressure is increased, the radioactive released to the environment can be delayed. Considering the risk of high pressure core melt sequence, RCS depressurization makes the CFVS to be initiated 7 h earlier than the base case to initiate the containment venting due to more coolant flowing into the containment.     

Thermodynamic consequences of leakages in a double containment during severe accidents

For a large nuclear power plant under normal operating conditions a leakage rate for the containment of 0.25 vol.%/day is admissible. During a successfully controlled LOCA leakages of the containment will be released through filters by the annulus^* air exhausting system into the environment. During a core melt accident a pressurization of the containment has to be expected, which could lead to a failure of the containment due to overpressurization. When openings in the containment steel shell occur before a catastrophic failure, a depressurization into the annulus takes place. The area of the openings determines the depressurization rate and the thermodynamic conditions in the annulus. Furthermore the behaviour of the components being necessary for accident mitigation is influenced too. This paper discusses the thermodynamic consequences of leaks in the containment shell of a German PWR during a core melt accident. The results of those calculations are the necessary boundary condition for the estimation of fission product retention in the annulus.     

Pressure release of containments during severe accidents in Switzerland

As required by the Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (HSK) all Switzerland's five nuclear power plants have to install a containment filtered venting system. The integrity of the containment (the last barrier for radioactive releases to the environment) can be threatened by overpressure due to inadequate heat removal. Design requirements have been provided for a specific class of severe accident scenarios. In general the capacity of the system is considered sufficient if it is able to vent the steam production corresponding to a decay heat level of 1% of the thermal reactor power. The mitigation capacity for the reduction of released radioactive material is specified by a retention factor of 1000 for aerosols to prevent or limit a long term ground contamination and a factor of 100 for elementary iodine for prevention or limiting of thyroid doses and to avoid short term evacuation. Besides existing requirements for design, maintenance and operation, additional claims such as passivity and operability at any pressure conditions inside the containment have to be met. Passivity implies that the system can be initiated after a severe accident without any operator action. The system also has to allow early manual venting. Various filtered venting systems are presently available. The nuclear power plants of Beznau, Gosgen, Leibstadt and Muhleberg have already selected such systems and already implemented them or are going to install them step by step. Beznau selected the Sulzer-EWI system which is using a water pool with nozzles-baffle plates and mixing elements to achieve the required filtration of the aerosols. In both Beznau units, the systems are installed and in standby mode. Gosgen, a pressurized water reactor as well as Beznau, is going to implement a filter system developed by Siemens-KWU, known as sliding pressure venting process, combining a venturi scrubber in a water pool and a mesh filter. The boiling water reactor of Leibstadt also selected the same system as Beznau while Müheberg choose the ABB system but not in the common design. The venturi pipes are thereby integrated in the water pool of the outer torus. The system in all five nuclear power plants is fully operable and in standby mode since December 1993.     

AP1000安全壳外环廊氢气风险分析

本文采用MAAP程序对AP1000核电厂的环廊区域进行建模,计算严重事故下的氢气浓度,以合理评估壳外氢气爆炸风险。分析结果表明：AP1000核电厂所设置的氢气点火器和氢气复合器能很好地控制环廊氢气浓度,防止壳外氢气风险的发生。只有在氢气点火器和氢气复合器均不可用,且产氢量很大的极限工况下,才可能在环廊区域内出现较高的氢气浓度,威胁安全壳的完整性。     

Conceptual design and analysis of a semi-passive containment cooling system for a large concrete containment

An internal evaporator-only (IEO) concept has been developed as a semi-passive containment cooling system for a large dry concrete containment. The function of this system is to keep the containment integrity by maintaining the internal pressure not to exceed ultimate design pressure, i.e. 0.83 MPa (120 psia) in the absence of any other containment cooling following a severe accident, which postulates core damage and hydrogen combustion. The ability of the concept to protect the containment was evaluated for the design basis accident (DBA) large break loss of coolant accident (LB LOCA) and severe accident scenarios (LB LOCA without Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS) and containment spray flow, 100% zirconium oxidation and complete hydrogen combustion). All were modeled using the GOTHIC computer code. It was concluded that a practical system requiring four IEO loops could be utilized to meet design criteria for severe accident scenarios.     

安全壳非能动冷却能力分析计算

本文对LOCA工况长期稳定阶段安全壳非能动冷却系统的冷却能力进行分析计算。研究了安全壳外壁面与空气折流板之间内环廊的特性与参数。在假设安全壳内壁面温度的前提下,分析计算涉及的各传热过程,相关的安全壳外壁面冷却水膜蒸发量与未蒸发水温选用特定值。通过安全壳外壁面向内环廊空气散热量的两个相关等式形成闭环,进而修正假设的安全壳内壁面温度并重新迭代计算。计算结果表明,安全壳冷却导出热量为6.99 MW,而相应阶段安全壳内事故释放热量为6 MW,即对应本文分析的具体情况,安全壳非能动冷却设计是有效的。     

Source term research and prognosis

The work sponsored by EPRI on source term technology is discussed (source terms describe the fission product releases to the environment in a severe hypothetical accident). The experimental programs include (1) fission product release from fuel, (2) fission product transport in the reactor primary circuit, (3) aerosol behavior in reactor containment, (4) aerosol scrubbing by water pools, and (5) hydrogen combustion in the containment. Code development work is also included.     

Core melt spreading on a reactor containment floor

The ex-vessel core melt spreading, cooling and stabilization is proposed for a nuclear power plant containment design. Clearly, the retention and coolability of the decay-heated core debris is very much the focal point in the proposed new and advanced designs so that, in the postulated event of a severe accident, the containment integrity is maintained and the risk of radioactivity releases is eliminated.

The work reported here includes three tasks (i) to review related methodology and data base, (ii) to develop the scaling methodology and (iii) to validate the assessment methodology developed by the authors. The study is based on state-of-the-art knowledge of the melt spreading phenomenology, in particular, and, of severe accident phenomenology in general.