Vertically aligned nanowires from boron-doped diamond

Vertically aligned diamond nanowires with controlled geometrical properties like length and distance between wires were fabricated by use of nanodiamond particles as a hard mask and by use of reactive ion etching. The surface structure, electronic properties, and electrochemical functionalization of diamond nanowires were characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) as well as electrochemical techniques. AFM and STM experiments show that diamond nanowire etched for 10 s have wire-typed structures with 3-10 nm in length and with typically 11 nm spacing in between. The electrode active area of diamond nanowires is enhanced by a factor of 2. The functionalization of nanowire tips with nitrophenyl molecules is characterized by STM on clean and on nitrophenyl molecule-modified diamond nanowires. Tip-modified diamond nanowires are promising with respect to biosensor applications where controlled biomolecule bonding is required to improve chemical stability and sensing significantly.     

Vertically Aligned GaAs Nanowires on Graphite and Few-Layer Graphene: Generic Model and Epitaxial Growth

By utilizing the reduced contact area of nanowires, we show that epitaxial growth of a broad range of semiconductors on graphene can in principle be achieved. A generic atomic model is presented which describes the epitaxial growth configurations applicable to all conventional semiconductor materials. The model is experimentally verified by demonstrating the growth of vertically aligned GaAs nanowires on graphite and few-layer graphene by the self-catalyzed vapor-liquid-solid technique using molecular beam epitaxy. A two-temperature growth strategy was used to increase the nanowire density. Due to the self-catalyzed growth technique used, the nanowires were found to have a regular hexagonal cross-sectional shape, and are uniform in length and diameter. Electron microscopy studies reveal an epitaxial relationship of the grown nanowires with the underlying graphitic substrates. Two relative orientations of the nanowire side-facets were observed, which is well explained by the proposed atomic model. A prototype of a single GaAs nanowire photodetector demonstrates a high-quality material. With GaAs being a model system, as well as a very useful material for various optoelectronic applications, we anticipate this particular GaAs nanowire/graphene hybrid to be promising for flexible and low-cost solar cells.     

GaAs/AlGaAs nanowire heterostructures studied by scanning tunneling microscopy

We directly image the interior of GaAs/AlGaAs axial and radial nanowire heterostructures with atomic-scale resolution using scanning tunneling microscopy. We show that formation of monolayer sharp and smooth axial interfaces are possible even by vapor-phase epitaxy. However, we also find that instability of the ternary alloys formed in the Au seed fundamentally limits axial heterostructure control, inducing large segment asymmetries. We study radial core-shell nanowires, imaging even ultrathin submonolayer shells. We demonstrate how large twinning-induced morphological defects at the wire surfaces can be removed, ensuring the formation of wires with atomically flat sides.     

Fabrication of a nanostructure thermal property measurement platform

Measurements of the electrical and thermal transport properties of one-dimensional nanostructures (e.g.?nanotubes and nanowires) are typically obtained without detailed knowledge of the specimen's atomic-scale structure or defects. To address this deficiency, we have developed a microfabricated, chip-based characterization platform that enables both transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of the atomic structure and defects as well as measurement of the thermal transport properties of individual nanostructures. The platform features a suspended heater line that physically contacts the center of a suspended nanostructure/nanowire that was placed using in?situ scanning electron microscope nanomanipulators. Suspension of the nanostructure across a through-hole enables TEM characterization of the atomic and defect structure (dislocations, stacking faults, etc) of the test sample. This paper explains, in detail, the processing steps involved in creating this thermal property measurement platform. As a model study, we report the use of this platform to measure the thermal conductivity and defect structure of a GaN nanowire.     

Direct atomic scale imaging of III-V nanowire surfaces

We have succeeded in direct atomic scale imaging of the exterior surfaces of III-V nanowires by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). By using atomic hydrogen, we expose the crystalline surfaces of InAs nanowires with regular InP segments in vacuum while retaining the wire morphology. We show images with atomic resolution of the two major types of InAs wurtzite nanowire surface facets and scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) data. Ab initio calculations of the lowest energy surface structures and simulated STM images, agree very well with experiments.     

Nanoscale synthesis and characterization of graphene-based objects

Graphene-based nano-objects such as nanotrenches, nanowires, nanobelts and nanoscale superstructures have been grown by surface segregation and precipitation on carbon-doped mono- and polycrystalline nickel substrates in ultrahigh vacuum. The dominant morphologies of the nano-objects were nanowire and nanosheet. Nucleation of graphene sheets occurred at surface defects such as step edges and resulted in the directional growth of nanowires. Surface analysis by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) has clarified the structure and functionality of the novel nano-objects at atomic resolution. Nanobelts were detected consisting of bilayer graphene sheets with a nanoscale width and a length of several microns. Moiré patterns and one-dimensional reconstruction were observed on multilayer graphite terraces. As a useful functionality, application to repairable high-resolution STM probes is demonstrated.     

Nanoscale synthesis and characterization of graphene-based objects

Abstract

Graphene-based nano-objects such as nanotrenches, nanowires, nanobelts and nanoscale superstructures have been grown by surface segregation and precipitation on carbon-doped mono- and polycrystalline nickel substrates in ultrahigh vacuum. The dominant morphologies of the nano-objects were nanowire and nanosheet. Nucleation of graphene sheets occurred at surface defects such as step edges and resulted in the directional growth of nanowires. Surface analysis by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) has clarified the structure and functionality of the novel nano-objects at atomic resolution. Nanobelts were detected consisting of bilayer graphene sheets with a nanoscale width and a length of several microns. Moiré patterns and one-dimensional reconstruction were observed on multilayer graphite terraces. As a useful functionality, application to repairable high-resolution STM probes is demonstrated.     

Faceting, composition and crystal phase evolution in III-V antimonide nanowire heterostructures revealed by combining microscopy techniques

III-V antimonide nanowires are among the most interesting semiconductors for transport physics, nanoelectronics and long-wavelength optoelectronic devices due to their optimal material properties. In order to investigate their complex crystal structure evolution, faceting and composition, we report a combined scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) study of gold-nucleated ternary InAs/InAs(1-x)Sb(x) nanowire heterostructures grown by molecular beam epitaxy. SEM showed the general morphology and faceting, TEM revealed the internal crystal structure and ternary compositions, while STM was successfully applied to characterize the oxide-free nanowire sidewalls, in terms of nanofaceting morphology, atomic structure and surface composition. The complementary use of these techniques allows for correlation of the morphological and structural properties of the nanowires with the amount of Sb incorporated during growth. The addition of even a minute amount of Sb to InAs changes the crystal structure from perfect wurtzite to perfect zinc blende, via intermediate stacking fault and pseudo-periodic twinning regimes. Moreover, the addition of Sb during the axial growth of InAs/InAs(1-x)Sb(x) heterostructure nanowires causes a significant conformal lateral overgrowth on both segments, leading to the spontaneous formation of a core-shell structure, with an Sb-rich shell.     

GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure nanowires studied by cathodoluminescence

In this report we explore the structural and optical properties of GaAs/A1GaAs heterostructure nanowires grown by metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy using gold seed-particles. The optical studies were done by low-temperature cathodo- luminescence （CL） in a scanning electron microscope （SEM）. We perform a systematic investigation of how the nanowire growth-temperature affects the total photon emission, and variations in the emission energy and intensity along the length of the nanowires. The morphology and crystal structures of the nanowires were investigated using SEM and transmission electron microscopy （TEM）. In order to correlate specific photon emission characteristics with variations in the nanowire crystal structure directly, TEM and spatially resolved CL measurements were performed on the same individual nanowires. We found that the main emission energy was located at around 1.48 eV, and that the emission intensity was greatly enhanced when increasing the GaAs nanowire core growth temperature. The data strongly suggests that this emission energy is related to rotational twins in the GaAs nanowire core. Our measurements also show that radial overgrowth by GaAs on the GaAs nanowire core can have a deteriorating effect on the optical quality of the nanowires. Finally, we conclude that an in situ pre-growth annealing step at a sufficiently high temperature significantly improves the optical quality of the nanowires.     

A cathodoluminescence study of the influence of the seed particle preparation method on the optical properties of GaAs nanowires

Cathodoluminescence at 8?K is used to compare the optical properties of AlGaAs-capped GaAs nanowires, grown by metal-organic vapour phase epitaxy and seeded by gold particles prepared by different methods. Six different methods were used to fabricate and deposit gold seed particles onto GaAs substrates: colloid particles, aerosol particles and particles defined by electron beam lithography. The nanowires were grown with and without an in?situ annealing step prior to the nanowire growth. The morphology showed no significant differences between the nanowires. The emissions from ensembles of nanowires have the same peak position, irrespective of seed particle type. Without the in?situ annealing step prior to the nanowire growth, there are significant differences in the emission intensity and emission patterns from nanowires grown from different seed particles. When an in?situ annealing step is included, all the resulting nanowires show identical optical emission intensity and emission patterns. This shows the importance of using an in?situ annealing step prior to growth. This study demonstrates that different preparation methods for gold seed particles can be used to produce GaAs nanowires with highly similar optical properties. The choice of particle preparation method to be used can therefore be based on availability and cost.     

New mode of vapor-liquid-solid nanowire growth

We report on the new mode of the vapor-liquid-solid nanowire growth with a droplet wetting the sidewalls and surrounding the nanowire rather than resting on its top. It is shown theoretically that such an unusual configuration happens when the growth is catalyzed by a lower surface energy metal. A model of a nonspherical elongated droplet shape in the wetting case is developed. Theoretical predictions are compared to the experimental data on the Ga-catalyzed growth of GaAs nanowires by molecular beam epitaxy. In particular, it is demonstrated that the experimentally observed droplet shape is indeed nonspherical. The new VLS mode has a major impact on the crystal structure of GaAs nanowires, helping to avoid the uncontrolled zinc blende-wurtzite polytylism under optimized growth conditions. Since the triple phase line nucleation is suppressed on surface energetic grounds, all nanowires acquire pure zinc blende phase along the entire length, as demonstrated by the structural studies of our GaAs nanowires.     

Photovoltaic properties of GaAsP core-shell nanowires on Si(001) substrate

We report on the growth and electro-optical studies of photovoltaic properties of GaAsP nanowires. Low density GaAsP nanowires were grown by Au assisted MOVPE on Si(001) substrates using a two step procedure to form a radial p-n junction. The STEM analyses show that the nanowires have cubic structure with the alloy composition GaAs?.??P?.?? in the nanowire core and GaAs?.??P?.?? in the shell. The nanowire ensembles were processed in the form of sub-millimeter size mesas. The photovoltaic properties were characterized by optical beam induced current (OBIC) and electronic beam induced current (EBIC) maps. Both OBIC and EBIC maps show that the photovoltage is generated by the nanowires; however, a strong signal variation from wire to wire is observed. Only one out of six connected nanowires produce a measurable signal. These strong fluctuations can be tentatively explained by the variation of the resistance of the nanowire-to-substrate connection, which is highly sensitive to the quality of the Si-GaAsP interface. This study demonstrates the importance of the spatially resolved charge collection microscopy techniques for the diagnosis of failures in nanowire photovoltaic devices.     

Effects of gold diffusion on n-type doping of GaAs nanowires

The deposition of n-GaAs shells is explored as a method of n-type doping in GaAs nanowires grown by the Au-mediated metal-organic chemical vapor deposition. Core-shell GaAs/n-GaAs nanowires exhibit an unintended rectifying behavior that is attributed to the Au diffusion during the shell deposition based on studies using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, current-voltage, capacitance-voltage, and Kelvin probe force measurements. Removing the gold prior to n-type shell deposition results in the realization of n-type GaAs nanowires without rectification. We directly correlate the presence of gold impurities to nanowire electrical properties and provide an insight into the role of seed particles on the properties of nanowires and nanowire heterostructures.     

Atomic-scale structure of Mo6S6 nanowires

We have studied the atomic-scale structure of the Mo6S6 nanowires using scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy (STM and STS) and density functional theory (DFT). A novel synthesis route based on metallic Mo precursors is presented for the selective formation of elementary pure Mo6S6 nanowires. The Mo6S6 nanowires selectively organize as trimer bundles, and each of the Mo6S6 nanowires consists of an electrically conducting Mo backbone dressed with a sulfur exterior cap. The Mo6S6 nanowires may thus be of interest as novel building blocks in nanoelectronics because the Mo6S6 nanowires exist in a robust, singular structural conformation with uniquely defined electrical (metallic) properties.     

Formation of chiral branched nanowires by the Eshelby Twist

Manipulating the morphology of inorganic nanostructures, such as their chirality and branching structure, has been actively pursued as a means of controlling their electrical, optical and mechanical properties. Notable examples of chiral inorganic nanostructures include carbon nanotubes, gold multishell nanowires, mesoporous nanowires and helical nanowires. Branched nanostructures have also been studied and been shown to have interesting properties for energy harvesting and nanoelectronics. Combining both chiral and branching motifs into nanostructures might provide new materials properties. Here we show a chiral branched PbSe nanowire structure, which is formed by a vapour-liquid-solid branching from a central nanowire with an axial screw dislocation. The chirality is caused by the elastic strain of the axial screw dislocation, which produces a corresponding Eshelby Twist in the nanowires. In addition to opening up new opportunities for tailoring the properties of nanomaterials, these chiral branched nanowires also provide a direct visualization of the Eshelby Twist.     

Features of Transport in Ultrathin Gold Nanowire Structures

The origin of the interface formation appearing due to the realization of contacts to ultrathin gold nanowire devices is revealed. Such interfaces play an important role in transport mechanisms in nanowire structures and can determine the electrical and operating parameters of a nanodevice. Based on experimental results, the specific electrical properties of bundles of ultrathin gold nanowires fabricated by wet chemical synthesis and subsequently assembled and contacted with gold electrodes are reported. It is demonstrated that these properties are strongly affected by the monolayers of organic molecules inevitably present on the surface of the nanowires due to synthetic conditions. In particular, such layers form a potential barrier to tunneling of the electrons from contacts to the nanowires. The electric transport behavior of the investigated nanowire structures in the temperature range from 500 mK to 300 K obeys the model of thermal fluctuation‐induced tunneling conduction through the nanowire‐metal electrode molecular junction. Application of this model allows calculation of the parameters of the molecular potential barrier. The formation of such a molecular barrier is verified by scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) measurements performed using a supporting graphene layer. These findings are important for designing novel nanodevices for molecular electronics on the basis of ultrathin nanowires.     

Nanowire encapsulation with polymer for electrical isolation and enhanced optical properties

Light management and electrical isolation are essential for the majority of optoelectronic nanowire (NW) devices.Here,we present a cost-effective technique,based on vapor-phase deposition of parylene-C and subsequent annealing,that provides conformal encapsulation,anti-reflective coating,improved optical properties,and electrical insulation for GaAs nanowires.The process presented allows facile encapsulation and insulation that is suitable for any nanowire structure.In particular,the parylene-C encapsulation functions as an efficient antireflection coating for the nanowires,with reflectivity down to ＜1％ in the visible spectrum.Furthermore,the parylene-C coating increases photoluminescence intensity,suggesting improved light guiding to the NWs.Finally,based on this process,a NW LED was fabricated,which showed good diode performance and a clear electroluminescence signal.We believe the process can expand the fabrication possibilities and improve the performance of optoelectronic nanowire devices.     

Heteroepitaxial growth of vertical GaAs nanowires on Si(111) substrates by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition

Epitaxial growth of vertical GaAs nanowires on Si(111) substrates is demonstrated by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition via a vapor-liquid-solid growth mechanism. Systematic experiments indicate that substrate pretreatment, pregrowth alloying temperature, and growth temperature are all crucial to vertical epitaxial growth. Nanowire growth rate and morphology can be well controlled by the growth temperature, the metal-organic precursor molar fraction, and the molar V/III ratio. The as-grown GaAs nanowires have a predominantly zinc-blende crystal structure along a <111> direction. Crystallographic {111} stacking faults found perpendicular to the growth axis could be almost eliminated via growth at high V/III ratio and low temperature. Single nanowire field effect transistors based on unintentionally doped GaAs nanowires were fabricated and found to display a strong effect of surface states on their transport properties.     

Silicon nanowire transistors with a channel width of 4 nm fabricated by atomic force microscope nanolithography

The emergence of an ultrasensitive sensor technology based on silicon nanowires requires both the fabrication of nanoscale diameter wires and the integration with microelectronic processes. Here we demonstrate an atomic force microscopy lithography that enables the reproducible fabrication of complex single-crystalline silicon nanowire field-effect transistors with a high electrical performance. The nanowires have been carved from a silicon-on-insulator wafer by a combination of local oxidation processes with a force microscope and etching steps. We have fabricated and measured the electrical properties of a silicon nanowire transistor with a channel width of 4 nm. The flexibility of the nanofabrication process is illustrated by showing the electrical performance of two nanowire circuits with different geometries. The fabrication method is compatible with standard Si CMOS processing technologies and, therefore, can be used to develop a wide range of architectures and new microelectronic devices.     

Growth of straight InAs-on-GaAs nanowire heterostructures

One of the main motivations for the great interest in semiconductor nanowires is the possibility of easily growing advanced heterostructures that might be difficult or even impossible to achieve in thin films. For III-V semiconductor nanowires, axial heterostructures with an interchange of the group III element typically grow straight in only one interface direction. In the case of InAs-GaAs heterostructures, straight nanowire growth has been demonstrated for growth of GaAs on top of InAs, but so far never in the other direction. In this article, we demonstrate the growth of straight axial heterostructures of InAs on top of GaAs. The heterostructure interface is sharp and we observe a dependence on growth parameters closely related to crystal structure as well as a diameter dependence on straight nanowire growth. The results are discussed by means of accurate first principles calculations of the interfacial energies. In addition, the role of the gold seed particle, the effect of its composition at different stages during growth, and its size are discussed in relation to the results observed.