Renewable energy from agro-residues in China: Solid biofuels and biomass briquetting technology

China has the abundant agro-residue resources, producing more than 630 million tons of agro-residues in 2006, and amounting to about 20% of total energy consumption in rural areas. Efficient utilization of enormous agro-residues resource is crucial for providing bioenergy, releasing risk of environmental pollution, and increasing farmers’ income. The paper presented the feasibility of densified solid biofuels technology for utilizing agro-residues in China. The output and distribution of agro-residues in recent 10 years, the R&D of briquetting technology, and the market of densified solid biofuels from agro-residues in China have been analyzed. The result indicated that the abundant agro-residue resources can provide the economical and sustainable raw material for densified solid biofuels development in China. The R&D of briquetting technology at present can strongly support the large scale production of densified solid biofuels. With continued improvement and cost reduction of briquetting technology, along with the support of nation energy policy on biomass energy, the market of densified solid biofuels from agro-residues in China will be more fully deployed. Based on the above mentioned key factors, development of densified solid biofuels from agro-residues in China will be promising and feasible.     

Study on sustainable development of rural household energy in northern China

The status of rural household energy consumption plays an important role in farmers’ daily life, especially in developing countries or regions. Here, we review the evolution of the rural household energy consumption structure in northern China from 1996 to 2005. Studies indicate that the proportion of straw, firewood, and coal consumption in total energy consumption have remained at 88.8–91.0%, whereas the proportion of high-quality commercial energy and modern renewable energy is still very low. The main challenges for the sustainable development of rural household energy supply are an unreasonable energy consumption structure, low-energy efficiency, serious environmental degradation, a large gap in energy supply among regions, and difficulty in developing renewable energy. We suggest some countermeasures to overcome the obstacles involved in the sustainable development of rural household energy in northern China, from energy sources to sociopolitical policies.     

Green heat: Its time has finally come

As consumers in less-developed countries increase their capacity of electricity and green power, developed nations are starting to realize the benefits of using low-grade thermal energy for ‘green heat’ applications that do not require high-grade electricity. This shift will not only benefit renewable energies that are designed for space conditioning, but will contribute to the global mix of ‘green power’ and ‘green heat’ capacity, as Bill Eggertson of the Earth Energy Society of Canada explains.     

Developing markets for renewable energy technologies

Although renewable energy resources are now being utilised more on a global scale than ever before, there is no doubt their contribution to the energy economy can still be greatly increased. Recently international support for developing these relatively new sources of energy has been driven by their benefits as assessed by reduced environmental impact, particularly reduced greenhouse gas emissions.After several decades of continuous but somewhat erratic funding for research and development of renewables, it is time to take stock of the key issues to be addressed in terms of implementation of major renewable energy programmes on a large scale worldwide. One of the first steps in this process is the identification and encouragement of reliable continuous markets both in developed and developing nations. Future energy policy and planning scenarios should take into account the factors necessary to integrate renewables in all their diverse forms into the normal energy economy of the country.Other critical factors in market development will include the mass production of high quality, reliable and reasonable cost technical products and the provision of adequate finance for demonstrating market ready and near market renewables equipment.Government agencies need to aid in the removal of legislative and institutional barriers hindering the widespread introduction of non-conventional energy sources and to encourage the implementation of government purchasing schemes.Recent moves by companies in Australia to market ‘green energy’ to customers should also aid in the public awareness of the ultimate potential of renewables leading to greater use in the industrial, commercial and domestic sectors.     

The design strategy of green rural housing of Tibetan areas in Yunnan,China

In order to improve living environment for the villages in Tibetan areas of Yunnan, this paper takes Shangri-La’s wooden architecture as research objects, analyses the site selection, plane layout, facade design, building materials and fabric detail of traditional rural housing by investigation. The paper also extracts the local inherent eco-technologies, and identifies the shortcomings of rural housing. Aimed at the flawed characteristics of Tibetan building such as the scattered building location, high Shape coefficient, less–story, poor insulation, massive energy consumption and redundant land occupation, this paper researches adaptable design strategies of green rural housing which is suitable to local condition, so as to boost the sustainable development of rural construction of Tibetan areas in Yunnan.     

COHERENT DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL ECONOMY,ECOLOGY AND ENERGY County-level Integrated Rural Energy Development Has Achieved Obvious Benefits

This paper analysis the rural energy development program and its economic background, points out that the input of different types of energy is necessary for developing rural economy and that China has achieved soundly environmental benefit in rural energy development. On the basis of the trial work in 18 counties successfully conducted integrated rural energy development during 1983 to 1990. China has launched Integrated Rural Energy Development (IRED) in 160 counties. It is a new model for rural energy development and will achieve simultaneously the benefits of energy, ecology and social development. This paper also points out what should be strengthened to further promote IRED.     

生物柴油的研究和应用进展

生物柴油作为一种可再生的替代能源，以其良好的环境效应受到越来越多的关注。生物柴油的使用可以减少S02，C02，CO，HC及颗粒排放。中国有丰富的植物油资源，促进生物柴油的应用不仅可以改善机动车的排气污染，而且能刺激中西部地区的农村经济发展，并对生物柴油的研究和应用进行了简单回顾。     

节能是能源工作者永恒的主题

改革开放20多年来,我国已成为能源生产与消费大国,资源与环境的承载压力越来越大。最近几年全国性缺电拉闸限电,制约着社会经济的发展与人民生活的提高。为实现全面建设小康社会,能源供应只能一半靠开发,一半靠节约。     

一条生态平衡与保护的可持续发展之路--抚州市发展沼气能源及综合利用的调研思考

沼气是地里长出来的清洁可再生能源，能有效地解决农村的生活用能问题。沼气综合利用能有效地推动生态农业的发展，有效地防治农村面源污染，有效地解决城市生活污水达标排放问题，创造出巨大的经济效益，良好的社会效益和生态效益，成为发展绿色产业和循环经济的现实通道，推动农村全面协调可持续发展。     

Utilization of straw in biomass energy in China

China is a big agricultural country and one of the most abundant straw resources in the world, producing more than 620 million tons of straw in 2002, and representing about 33–45% of energy consumption for livelihood in rural areas. Utilization of straw as energy with high efficiency and rationality not only meets the demands for energy as the economy grows, but also provide a basis for environmental protection and sustainable development of society in China. This paper reviews the present utilized technologies of straw in biomass energy, including improved stove, biogas, straw gasification and straw briquette, which are already commercialized and popularized in China. Other technologies, such as liquefaction, straw carbonization and bio-coal, are also presented. Based on the technology status and potential, the future research and development of straw in the biomass energy portfolio in China are proposed.     

A review of energy in Rwanda

During the last two decades, Rwanda has experienced an energy crisis mostly due to lack of investment in the energy sector. With the growing of the population and increasing industrialization in urban areas, energy provided by existing hydro and thermal power plants has been increasingly scarce with high energy costs, and energy instability. Furthermore, as wood fuel is the most important source of energy in Rwanda, the enduring dependence on it and fossil fuel consumption as well, will continue to impact on the process of environmental degradation. Rwanda is rich with abundant renewable energy resources such as methane gas in Lake Kivu, solar, biomass, geothermal; and wind energy resource is currently being explored. Recently, the Government has given priority to the extension of its national electrical grid through development of hydro power generation projects, and to rural energy through development of alternative energy projects for rural areas where access to national grid is still difficult. This paper presents a review of existing energy resources and energy applications in Rwanda. Recent developments on renewable energy are also presented.     

Achieving global environmental benefits through local development of clean energy? The case of small hilly hydel in India

Energy and development are closely intertwined. Yet, increasing fossil fuel-based energy consumption contributes significantly to environmental problems both locally and globally. This article explores the interlinkages between local livelihood and environmental benefits from the provision of energy to remote rural households through small hydropower development. The analysis is based on research carried out around a large development project designed to assist the Government of India in the optimum utilization of small hydropower resources in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions. There are about 100,000 villages in India that are not connected to electricity supply, many of them in the hilly regions with ample hydropower potential. The project aimed to demonstrate the utility of and options for providing electricity to such villages through clean mini-hydro. The article addresses the nature of the impacts of the demonstration small hydel schemes on the local communities, to what extent they translate into environmental benefits both locally and globally, and the perceptions and participation of the local communities in these small hydro schemes. The study explores the impacts of the schemes on financial capital, natural capital, social capital, physical capital, human capital, and gender equity in the local communities. It further provides a discussion on the links between local and global environmental benefits. Overall, it is found that the schemes’ impacts both on the local communities and the environment are mostly marginally positive or neutral, although achieving clearly demonstrable benefits would require major upscaling of the effort involving broader changes than possible under this project. Furthermore, it is argued that some of the assumptions behind the project design were faulty. Involvement of the local communities and direct livelihood benefits to them are essential for the long-term sustainability of the small hydro schemes. The discussion and conclusions are intended to provide guidance to programmes and projects that aim to promote environmentally sound energy in the rural areas of developing countries.     

云南省区域性农村能源综合建设模式

对云南省4个农村能源类型区的现状，特点及今后的发展趋势进行研究，总结出各具特色的区域性农村能源综合建设模式，指出多模式互补是云南省农村能源综合建设的必由之路。     

Bioethanol development in China and the potential impacts on its agricultural economy

China is now the third largest bioethanol producer in the world after the United State and Brazil. The overall goals of this paper are to provide an overview of China’s current bioethanol program, its future trend, and the likely impacts on its agricultural economy in the future. The analysis shows that China has developed an ambitious long-run biofuel program with a series of financial and institutional supports. While there are several potential feedstock crops available for bioethanol production, lack of land for feedstock production is one of major constraints in China’s bioethanol expansion. The results show that although China’s bioethanol expansion will have little impacts on overall agricultural prices in international markets, it will have significant impacts on the prices, productions, and trade of those energy crops being used for bioethanol production in China.     

农村可再生能源适用技术的经济性分析

在农村和城市能源消费模式有很大的区别,在城市能源消费具有相当的密集性,而大部分可再生能源由于其资源密集度较低以及市场竞争能力不足不适宜在城市应用,但在农村则不会造成很大问题,因为农村的用能密集度也不高。一些可再生能源利用技术在农村发展和生态环境保护中发挥了重要的作用,促进了农村的可持续发展。文章将以实例研究的形式重点讨论几种适用山区农村和平原农村的可再生能源利用技术的经验性及其适应性。     

Rural household energy consumption with the economic development in China: stages and characteristic indices

This paper discusses history variance and general features on rural household energy consumption with the economic development in China. Energy shortage has been a long-standing problem in rural areas of China. The average effective energy consumption was 0.46–0.54 kgce per day per household in the 1960s and 1970s. The reason for this is that the rural household energy supply mainly relies on the available amounts of local natural energy resources. The problem of cooking fuel shortage was basically solved in the early 1980s since more straw and stalks were produced due to the rapid development of agriculture. The process of energy commercialization also started from the early 1980s due to the availability of coal, fuel oil and other energy sources in the market, and the reconstruction of rural power supply network. Energy consumption was 369.8 kgce per capita with 30% of commercial energy consumption and the effective heat per capita per day was 0.64 kgce in 1995. A closer relationship was found between household energy consumption level/structure and family income along with the economic development. This paper analyzed the rural household energy consumption of three typical regions, i.e., out-of-poverty, well-off and rich regions, in terms of effective heat per capita per day, percentage of commercial energy consumption in total effective heat, electricity consumption per capita and room temperature of northern areas in winter.     

调整政策 促进可再生能源发展

步入21世纪,可持续发展战略实施力度加大。面对环境和国内外市场的严峻挑战,我国可再生能源如何发展,这需要进行政策性的战略调整。从思路上要改变传统观念,把新能源和可再生能源作为21世纪中叶我国的主要接续能源,将其列入国民经济发展的五年计划和中长期规划中,促其产业化和本地化。适当时机启动新能源和可再生能源产业化工程。改变风能开发的地区优先顺序,即选择资源条件较好,但经济发达或比较发达的地区,以政府的强制性法规,推行可再生能源发电配额制。在新的电价机制中,给上网售电的风能等绿色电力予以环保折扣。     

Biofuel production and implications for land use,food production and environment in India

There is a large interest in biofuels in India as a substitute to petroleum-based fuels, with a purpose of enhancing energy security and promoting rural development. India has announced an ambitious target of substituting 20% of fossil fuel consumption by biodiesel and bioethanol by 2017. India has announced a national biofuel policy and launched a large program to promote biofuel production, particularly on wastelands: its implications need to be studied intensively considering the fact that India is a large developing country with high population density and large rural population depending upon land for their livelihood. Another factor is that Indian economy is experiencing high growth rate, which may lead to enhanced demand for food, livestock products, timber, paper, etc., with implications for land use. Studies have shown that area under agriculture and forest has nearly stabilized over the past 2–3 decades. This paper presents an assessment of the implications of projected large-scale biofuel production on land available for food production, water, biodiversity, rural development and GHG emissions. The assessment will be largely focused on first generation biofuel crops, since the Indian program is currently dominated by these crops. Technological and policy options required for promoting sustainable biofuel production will be discussed.     

Current status of renewable energy in Nepal: Opportunities and challenges

Energy is indispensible in modern society and is one of the most important components of socio-economic development. Nepal is one of the least developed countries with more than 80% of its population residing in rural communities. Per capita energy usage – often viewed as a key index of the development – in the country is far less than the global average per capita energy usage. The energy sector is dominated by the traditional energy sources such as fuel woods, crop residues and animal dung mainly for domestic usage contributing to about 86% of the national energy consumption. Currently 40% of the population has access to electricity, and the rural electrification accounts for only 29%. The majority of rural populations are meeting their energy needs by burning biomass in traditional stoves which has several environmental and public health issues. Nearly all fossil-derived fuels consumed in the country are imported in a refined form, and the perpetual increase in petroleum imports has adversely impacted the existing fragile economy of the country. Despite a huge potential in harnessing various renewable energy resources such as hydropower, solar power, wind energy and biofuels/bioenergy, these resources have not been sustainably captured due to geographical, technical, political and economical reasons. This paper presents a brief account of Nepal's renewable energy resources and the current status of various renewable energy technologies (RETs) such as micro-hydro, solar power, wind energy, biofuel/bioenergy, improved cook stoves, and improved water mill. It also highlights the opportunities and barriers for the development of RETs. Finally this paper presents some recommendations for the promotion, development and implementation of RETs in the country.     

浅析大湄公河次区域可再生能源技术推广应用机制

可再生能源开发利用已成为国际社会共同关注的热点和重点,大湄公河次区域国家可再生能源资源丰富,环境优越,市场潜力巨大.虽然我国云南、广西两省区与湄公河次区域国家接壤,拥有地理区位优势,在可再生能源开发利用方面也具有一定的技术优势.但由于对该地区可再生能源技术推广应用机制了解不多,导致企业向该地区开展可再生能源技术转移困难重重.文章对该地区可再生能源技术推广应用机制做了较为深入的分析 ,以期为相关部门、科研院所提供参考.