Perceived control in the college classroom: Response–outcome contingency training and instructor expressiveness effects on student achievement and causal attributions.

Following an incentive (low, high) manipulation, 296 college students received response–outcome contingency training involving contingent, noncontingent, or no feedback and responded to an attribution questionnaire. All Ss then observed a lecture presented by a low- or high-expressive instructor and completed a postlecture achievement test and an attribution questionnaire. Results show that noncontingent Ss perceived less control and also manifested a helplessness attribution profile after the contingency manipulation. Postlecture results indicate that the high- compared to the low-expressive instructor increased achievement and internal locus in contingent but not noncontingent Ss for low-incentive conditions only. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of contingent and noncontingent feedback and subject expectancies on electoencephalogram biofeedback training.

80 undergraduates either received auditory feedback contingent on their production of alpha or they received noncontingent feedback. In addition, Ss were led to expect either a positive or a negative experience. Ss who received contingent feedback produced significantly more alpha than Ss who received noncontingent feedback, but the type of feedback did not seem related to mood. Instead, Ss led to expect a positive experience reported significant reductions in anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The use of group contingencies for behavioral control: A review.

Two types of group contingencies have been developed to control academic and disruptive behavior in the classroom, in which reinforcement is dependent on (a) a selected individual's or (b) the entire group's performance. Comparisons of group and individual contingencies have generally reported them to be equally effective, with some suggestion that individual Ss characteristics may be of importance. The sociometric status of target S is reportedly affected by group consequences; in 2 experiments, Ss increased in popularity, whereas in 1 report they showed a decline. Other studies have shown an increase in cooperative behavior on an academic task involving group-contingent reward. Absence of or noncontingent reinforcement does not usually produce behavioral control, although a combination of instructions and feedback without extraneous reward has been partially effective. Future research is needed on the interrelation of group contingencies and S characteristics, combinations of group and individual contingencies, and the effects of feedback, instructions, and contingent and noncontingent extraneous reward. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vicarious acquisition of learned helplessness.

In a study with 75 female undergraduates, the performance of Ss following either direct or vicarious experience with a noncontingent training task was compared with the performance of Ss who experienced contingent outcomes on the same task. Ss given no experience with the training task served as an additional control group. Relative to Ss experiencing either no prior training or contingent training, Ss exposed to noncontingency manifested performance deficits on a subsequent test task. Moreover, the magnitude of these deficits was comparable for Ss who had directly experienced noncontingency and those who had merely observed someone else experience noncontingency. These findings suggest that perceiving a low degree of contingency in a given situation may be a result of either direct or vicarious exposure to noncontingency. Thus, learned helplessness effects may be induced by a modeling procedure. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of imitation in nonimitative, severely retarded children: Contribution of reinforcement and instruction.

Determined the relative contribution of instruction and reinforcement to the development of simple motoric imitation in 12 nonimitative, severely retarded children (CAs 9 yrs 5 mo to 20 yrs 2 mo). Reinforcement was varied across 3 conditions (contingent reinforcement, noncontingent reinforcement, and no reinforcement), and instructions were varied across 2 conditions (presence and absence). Two Ss were assigned to each of the conditions, and an ABAB experimental design was employed. Results indicate that the most effective procedures were those that contingently reinforced Ss for each correct imitation with or without instructions to imitate. Ss who received various combinations of noncontingent reinforcement and/or instructions did not show any consistent increase in their imitative behavior. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contingent feedback, familiarization, and infant affect: How a stranger becomes a friend.

Several lines of inquiry have led to the expectation that an infant's response to an unfamiliar adult might be influenced by the degree of control that the infant is able to exert over the situation. 24 male and 24 female infants (9.5–10.5 mo old) participated in a study in which the initial appearances of a stranger were contingent (controlled by the infant), noncontingent and frequent, or noncontingent and infrequent. Ss' subsequent reactions were assessed within the context of a stranger-approach sequence and a free-play situation. Initially, Ss responded more positively to the approaching stranger if her appearances were either controllable or frequent than if she appeared infrequently. As the stranger intruded, however, she was responded to more favorably by Ss in the contingent condition than by those in either noncontingent group. Analyses of free-play behavior yielded comparable results but only for female Ss. Results support the view that contingent feedback serves to mediate the formation of early social relationships. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A two-process theory of learned helplessness.

160 college students solved button-pushing problems under feedback conditions designed to differ systematically in the amount of information they conveyed and the amount of motivation they produced. During a pretest series of trials, 1 group received response-contingent feedback designed to enhance both information and motivation. A 2nd group was yoked to the contingent group and thus received low information and low motivation. A 3rd group experienced noncontingent success (low information, high motivation), and a 4th group received noncontingent failure feedback (low information, low motivation). A 2-process model that gives equal weight to information and motivational cues correctly predicted that the performance of the noncontingent success group on a transfer task would fall in between that of the contingent group and the failure/yoked groups. As a more stringent test of the model, 4 interventions were factorially combined with the pretreatments. The intervention treatments involved giving either no information, information about the contingencies, praise, or derogation. As predicted by the model, simply giving Ss information about the contingencies removed the debilitating effects of learned helplessness. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of electromyographic feedback on hypnotic susceptibility: More preliminary data.

Conducted a double-blind study with 12 undergraduate males to test the hypothesis that taped verbal relaxation instructions and response-contingent EMG feedback training would increase suggestibility or hypnotic susceptibility over that obtained with instructions and false or noncontingent feedback. Data appear to confirm the hypothesis. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Suppressive and enhancing effects of footshock on food-reinforced operant responding following septal lesions in rats.

Measured effect of septal lesions on suppression of an intermittently food-reinforced lever press by contingent and noncontingent footshock, using a total of 48 experimentally naive male hooded Lister rats in 2 experiments. Ss with septal damage maintained higher response rates than did intact Ss under both contingent and noncontingent shock. Furthermore, the difference in suppression produced by the contingent and noncontingent conditions was approximately the same for the experimental Ss and controls. In Exp II performance was measured during counter-conditioning in which the correlation between contingent shock and positive reinforcement was varied. Ss with septal lesions responded at higher rates than did controls. When only reinforced responses were punished, this lesion-induced elevation represented an increase above baseline performance without punishment. This finding suggests that the effect of septal damage on appetitive instrumental performance cannot be due solely to a deficit in response inhibition. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of instructions and reward conditions on the generalization of a prohibition.

Studied effects of instructions and reward contingency on conformity to a prohibition in 48 male and female preschoolers. Ss built with blocks of graduated sizes but were told to use only big (little) blocks. Some were given explicit information as to the permitted sizes; some were not. For some Ss, a prize was contingent upon following instructions; for others, it was not. All groups conformed, displaying a gradient for blocks used according to size. Interactions between instruction and reward conditions are discussed in terms of the effects of task difficulty on performance under threat of negative consequences for errors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lesions of the cerebellar vermis and cerebellar hemispheres: Effects on heart rate conditioning in rats.

The effects of lesions of the cerebellum on the acquisition of heart rate (HR) conditioned responses (CRs) were examined in rats. Large lesions of the cerebellar vermis severely attenuated the acquisition of differentially conditioned bradycardic responses in restrained rats without affecting unconditioned HR responses to the tone conditioned stimuli (CSs) or the shock unconditioned stimulus/stimuli (UCS). In Exp 2, Ss were trained unrestrained, and under these conditions the CR was tachycardia in control Ss. Lesions of the vermis again severely attenuated acquisition of this CR without affecting unconditioned response (UCR) to the CSs or UCS. Bilateral lesions of the cerebellar hemispheres did not affect HR conditioning in either test procedure. The vermis of the cerebellum is an essential component of an HR conditioning circuit in the rat. The cerebellar hemispheres, which are involved in some discrete somatomotor CRs, have no essential functional contribution to HR conditioning. Results are discussed in relation to contributions from a forebrain system involved in HR conditioning and in relation to lateral cerebellar contributions to discrete somatomotor CRs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Increasing adolescents' acceptance of long-term personal health behavior.

Assessed the effects of contingency management procedures for increasing children's acceptance of fluoride mouthrinsing. 351 7th and 8th graders received specific action instructions or simple reminders, and all Ss received rewards contingent on compliance. Action instructions had the predicted beneficial impact on compliance among urban lower-income Ss; however, among suburban upper-middle-income Ss, they had a negative effect. The participation level was 66% for urban Ss. Postcard reminders had no effect on compliance in either population. At this time, the primary finding of the series of studies of which this is part is that only contingent rewards seem to have generally beneficial effects on adolescents' long-term personal health behavior; the addition of action instructions seems useful for some populations, but must be approached with caution until the factors affecting the response to such instruction are better understood. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived control in the college classroom: Limitations in instructor expressiveness due to noncontingent feedback and lecture content.

Consistent with various control theories, recent evidence suggests that exposure to noncontingent outcomes interferes with instructional quality in the college classroom. The present study examined whether the density of negative noncontingent outcomes limits instructor expressiveness as an effective teaching behavior in different lecture content conditions. 361 undergraduates took an aptitude test that provided contingent feedback (CF) or low or medium noncontingent failure feedback (NCFF). Ss completed an attribution questionnaire and then observed a videotaped lecture low or high in content given by a low- or high-expressive instructor, after which Ss responded to a postlecture achievement test and an attribution questionnaire. Medium NCFF reduced Ss' perceived control and lowered their internal attribution locus for their aptitude performance, compared to low NCFF and CF. Postlecture results indicated that for high-content lectures, instructor expressiveness facilitated achievement and confidence in Ss who received CF and low NCFF but not in Ss who received medium NCFF. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Change mechanisms in EMG biofeedback training: Cognitive changes underlying improvements in tension headache.

43 college students suffering from recurrent tension headache were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 EMG biofeedback training conditions. Although all Ss were led to believe they were learning to decrease frontal EMG activity, actual feedback was contingent on decreased EMG activity for half of the Ss and increased EMG activity for the other half. Within these 2 groups, Ss also viewed bogus video displays designed to convince them they were achieving large (high success) or small (moderate success) reductions in EMG activity. Results show that regardless of actual changes in EMG activity, Ss receiving high-success feedback had substantially greater improvement in headache activity (53%) than Ss receiving moderate success feedback (26%). Performance feedback was also related to score changes in locus of control and self-efficacy measures administered pre- and posttreatment. Changes in these 2 cognitive variables during biofeedback training were correlated with reductions in headache activity following treatment, while changes in EMG activity exhibited during training were uncorrelated with outcome. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Additivity versus nonadditivity of intrinsic and extrinsic incentives: Implications for work motivation, performance, and attitudes.

80 male Ss were randomly assigned to either an intrinsically appealing or an intrinsically nonappealing assembly task. Half of the Ss were paid according to a highly salient, continuous, contingent reward schedule, while the other half were paid according to an extremely noncontingent payment schedule. Thus, 20 Ss worked for both intrinsic and extrinsic incentives, 20 for extrinsic only, 20 for intrinsic only, and 20 for minimal incentives of either type. Data on 4 dependent variables (performance, intrinsic motivation, orientation toward the task, and intrinsic satisfaction) provided convergent support for E. L. Deci's (see record 1968-02190-001) hypothesis that intrinsic and extrinsic incentives are not additive in determining attitudes and behavior. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Learned helplessness" or "learned incompetence"?

Most experiments on learned helplessness (LH) have not dissociated contingency from success, a procedure that has led to the belief that uncontrollability (noncontingency) is the determining feature of LH. Actually, it is not clear whether uncontrollability or failure is responsible for the LH effect, nor is it clear which of these 2 factors would be sufficient to induce the deficits found. This confusion was examined in the present 2 experiments with 80 undergraduates, who completed Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale, a pretreatment task (a concept formation task in Exp I and a task based on the Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test in Exp II), and an aftereffect task (Stroop Color–Word Test). Results suggest that uncontrollability is not a necessary or sufficient condition for producing LH. Both contingent and noncontingent Ss who experienced failure in a pretreatment task subsequently displayed deficits on tasks that did not require a problem-solving strategy. Noncontingent Ss who experienced success did not show performance decrement. It is proposed that "learned incompetence" may better account for what is experienced in this type of experiment. (French summary) (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contingent pay and intrinsic task interest: Moderating effects of work values.

Examined the hypothesis that Ss' work value orientations would moderate the effect that contingent extrinsic incentives may have in reducing intrinsic task interest. 74 business undergraduates were administered demographic and work value questionnaires and the Clerical Abilities subtest of the Short Employment Tests. Ss were asked to proofread 2 short stories (high interest) or 2 law review article sections (low interest) under noncontingent, contingent, or no-pay conditions. Analyses showed that under contingent pay conditions, Ss with relatively higher extrinsic than intrinsic work values reported lower task satisfaction than Ss with relatively higher intrinsic work values. In contrast, under no-pay conditions, Ss with relatively higher extrinsic than intrinsic work values were actually more satisfied than their intrinsic counterparts. Results, therefore, support the existence of both an overjustification and an insufficient justification effect for financial incentives. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social reinforcer satiation: An outcome of frequency not ambiguity—sometimes.

Examined the effects of frequency and contingency of reinforcement on the social deprivation–satiation phenomenon. Work by D. G. Perry and H. Garrow (1975) suggested that the inverse relation between social reinforcer effectiveness and its prior frequency of delivery is not obtained when the delivery has been noncontingent. During a pretraining task, 84 3rd and 4th graders heard the experimenter say "good" either always contingent on their response (S-contingent), never contingent (explicitly unpaired), or randomly noncontingent (random). The praise statement was delivered either at a low (2), high (16), or zero frequency. 12 additional children received no pretraining. In a subsequent discrimination test, correct responses were consistently followed by the word "good." Results indicate a significant 3-way interaction between sex of S, frequency, and contingency. The deprivation–satiation effect was obtained only for boys and only in the S-contingent condition, failing to replicate the findings of Perry and Garrow. Results indicate limits on the generality of the social deprivation–satiation phenomenon. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of EMG awareness in EMG biofeedback learning

Underlying most research on biofeedback learning is a theoretical model of the processes involved. The current study tested a prediction from the Awareness Model: High initial EMG awareness should facilitate response control during EMG biofeedback training. Seventy-two undergraduates were assessed for forehead EMG awareness by asking them to produce target responses from 1.0 to 5.0 microV every 15 s for 16 trials. Based on this assessment, two groups (high and low awareness) were trained for 64 trials to produce these target levels with either EMG biofeedback, practice (no feedback), or noncontingent EMG feedback. A transfer task was identical to the initial assessment. During training, the biofeedback group deviated less from target than the practice and noncontingent groups. The biofeedback group was the only group to improve from initial EMG awareness activity. During transfer, only the low awareness biofeedback group remained below initial EMG awareness level. These findings can be interpreted in terms of the Two-Process Model.