Sensitization of salt appetite is associated with increased "wanting" but not "liking" of a salt reward in the sodium-deplete rat.

To examine the role of incentive sensitization in the potentiation of salt appetite by prior depletions, the authors assessed the motivation to obtain salt ("wanting") and the palatability of salt ("liking") independently in salt-sensitized rats. Breakpoint on a progressive ratio reinforcement schedule was used to measure salt wanting and taste reactivity was used to measure salt liking in rats with and without a history of Na+ depletion. Salt-sensitized rats displayed higher breakpoints relative to controls. However, a history of Na+ depletion was not associated with a greater positive shift in taste reactivity measures. The data suggest that these components of reward are separable in this model and support the general proposition that sensitization may alter wanting but not liking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of two-segmented logistic regression to estimate change-points in epidemiologic studies

The effects of exposure to an alcohol-related cue (drinking low-alcohol beer) and a musical depression/elation mood induction procedure, on craving, motivation and liking for alcohol, were studied in male and female recreational drinkers. Alcohol craving was assessed using the multidimensional desires for alcohol questionnaire (DAQ), motivation for alcohol was assessed by performance on a progressive ratio (PR) task reinforced with small volumes (25 ml) of low-alcohol beer, and liking for the reinforcers earned in the PR task was assessed using a visual analogue scale. Consumption of a half-pint of low-alcohol beer increased alcohol craving in male subjects but had no effect or decreased craving in female subjects. Subsequent induction of a depressed mood increased craving scores, relative to elated or neutral mood groups, but these effects were confined to abstinent (non-cued) subjects, both male and female. Performance on the PR task correlated significantly with one of the four factors of the DAQ, negative reinforcement, and was increased by induction of a depressed mood in abstinent female and cued male subjects. Reinforcer liking was unchanged following mood induction in male subjects, but decreased in both groups of female subjects. To summarize, the cue of drinking low-alcohol beer increased alcohol craving in men but not in women, and induction of a depressed mood increased alcohol craving and motivation, but also decreased alcohol liking. These effects were present to different extents in different cue/gender subgroups, and were partially independent.     

Reactivity to Alcohol-Related Cues: Relationship Among Cue Type, Motivational Processes, and Personality.

This study examined the relationship between personality traits implicated in the drinking literature (i.e., sensation seeking and anxiety) and reactivity to 2 different alcohol cues. The opportunity to consume alcohol was manipulated, and differences in urge and affective reactivity were assessed. Gray's (1987) model of impulsive sensation seeking and anxiety was adopted to investigate relationships between personality and responses to the appetitive (consumption) and aversive (no consumption, nonrewarding) alcohol cues in 40 regular social drinkers. The consumption cue produced increases in appetitive motivation and positive correlations with sensation-seeking traits. The no-consumption cue produced increases in aversive motivation and positive correlations with anxiety-related traits. It was concluded that Gray's model of impulsive sensation seeking and anxiety may provide a useful framework for examining the personality correlates of cue reactivity to different cues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional and motivational changes after bilateral lesions of the globus pallidus.

This study investigated motivational changes in a 44 year-old man (PJ) who developed considerable reduction in spontaneous activity and speech, flat affect, social withdrawal, loss of interest, inability to "feel," and lack of concern regarding his medical condition after bilateral, focal, anoxic lesions of the globus pallidus. PJ and 30 male controls performed a task designed to parse hedonic evaluation, or liking, from incentive motivation, or wanting. Affective stimuli were presented on a computer screen and subjects controlled viewing time by pressing keys. PJ's liking and wanting of unpleasant stimuli was similar to that of controls. In response to pleasant stimuli, PJ showed normal ratings of wanting and hedonic appreciation, but significantly reduced viewing time or made no responses. Active withdrawal from liked stimuli could constitute the basic mechanism underlying poor motivation and social withdrawal associated with globus pallidus damage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Body mass index and alcohol consumption: Family history of alcoholism as a moderator.

Recent research suggests that excess food consumption may be conceptualized as an addictive behavior. Much of the evidence comes from neurobiological similarities between drug and food consumption. In addition, an inverse relation between alcohol consumption and body mass index (BMI) has been observed. Previous research has hypothesized that this inverse relation is attributable to competition between food and alcohol for similar neurotransmitter receptors. The current study explored this neurobiological hypothesis further by examining the influence of an indicator of biological risk associated with alcohol problems (family history of alcoholism) on the relationship between alcohol and food intake. Data from 37,259 participants in the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) were included in the study. BMI, family history of alcoholism, gender, and race/ethnicity were assessed as predictors of typical drinking frequency and estimated blood alcohol concentration (BAC). An inverse relationship between alcohol consumption and BMI was demonstrated. An attenuation of family history effects on drinking behavior was evident for obese compared to nonobese participants. The results suggest a neurobiological link between alcohol use and food consumption, consistent with theories characterizing excess food consumption as an addictive behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention bias and disinhibited behavior as predictors of alcohol use and enhancement reasons for drinking.

Disinhibition is a risk factor for alcohol use that may be specifically linked to drinking to enhance positive affect (enhancement motives). In this study individual differences germane to disinhibition were assessed, and their relation to alcohol use and reasons for drinking was examined. Laboratory tasks assessed attentional biases for reward and punishment cues and disinhibited behavior. Self-reported personality, alcohol use, and reasons for drinking were included. Frequent alcohol use and frequent drinking for enhancement, but not for coping or social reasons, were associated with a bias to attend to reward cues and disinhibited behavior. Poor inhibitory control assessed by self-reports was also associated with alcohol use and enhancement reasons for drinking. Results support a positive reinforcement mechanism of alcohol use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital stability in alcoholic-spouse relationships as a function of drinking pattern and location.

The relation between alcohol consumption and marital stability was assessed longitudinally in two groups of male alcoholics: in-home (n?=?4) and out-of-home (n?=?4) drinkers. Through the use of univariate and bivariate time-series analyses, the study identified a causal relation between alcohol consumption and marital stability and a significant impact of drinking location on obtained relations. Findings are discussed in terms of Steinglass's suggestion that alcohol can have adaptive consequences for the marriage and family life of alcoholics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship among alcohol use, depression, smoking behavior, and motivation to quit smoking with hospitalized smokers.

Relationships among depression, alcohol use, and motivation to quit smoking were examined in a sample of 350 hospitalized smokers. Multivariate multiple regression and logistic regression analyses indicated that participants with depressed mood were more likely to have a history of problematic drinking. Participants with depressed mood and a history of problematic drinking were more likely to be nicotine dependent and anticipated greater difficulty refraining from smoking while hospitalized. Alcohol use in heavier amounts was associated with a decreased concern with negative aspects of smoking, whereas history of depression was associated with increased concern in that area. Finally, current drinking was associated with increased confidence in quitting in 1 month whereas depressed mood was associated with decreased confidence in quitting. Overall, depression and alcohol use had stronger associations with smoking-related variables than with smoking cessation motivation variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group alcohol climate, alcohol consumption, and student performance.

This study explored the relationship between group norms for drinking and two indicators of student performance. Based on data from 96 undergraduate students (mean age = 22 years) living in 21 student houses, the multilevel hypotheses that (a) house alcohol climate is associated with student alcohol consumption, (b) student alcohol consumption is associated with student withdrawal behavior (i.e., absence from class), and (c) that student alcohol consumption mediates the link between house alcohol climate and student withdrawal behavior are supported. No link between student alcohol consumption and student academic performance (i.e., average grades) was found. Similarly, there was no empirical support for the hypothesis that house cohesion would moderate the relationship between house alcohol climate and student alcohol consumption. Implications for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in the relations between depressive symptoms and drinking behavior among problem drinkers: A three-wave study.

Prior research has suggested that the relation between depression and drinking behavior is stronger for women than for men. In a 3-wave study spanning 3 years, we examined the nature of reciprocal relations between depressive symptoms and drinking behavior among women (n?=?207) and men (n?=?207) seeking detoxification or referral services for their drinking problems. Latent variable structural equation modeling analyses revealed that more baseline depression was associated with less alcohol consumption 1 year later among women and men. However, later on, more depression predicted heavier alcohol consumption, but only among women. Among women and men, heavier alcohol consumption predicted more subsequent depression, although the timing of this effect differed by gender. Reciprocal effects between depression and drinking problems were found only among men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender, Alcohol Consumption, and Differing Alcohol Expectancy Dimensions in College Drinkers.

Examinations of gender differences in alcohol expectancies among college drinkers typically have used self-report measures to assess single expectancy dimensions and often have been confounded by drinking level. This study examined gender differences in alcohol expectancies using 2 assessment methods. College students (N = 88) completed self-report questionnaires, including expectancy likelihood and subjective evaluation endorsements of expectancies, and a computerized expectancy accessibility task. Expectancy accessibility and endorsement were modestly correlated, with higher alcohol consumption and female gender linked to greater accessibility and endorsement of social enhancement expectancies. Gender moderated the relation between consumption and sociability expectancy accessibility; among men, heavier drinking was associated with more rapid activation of expectancies. Findings suggest complexity in associations among these variables and underscore the need to capture the multidimensionality of the expectancy construct and its relationship to alcohol use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Distractibility moderates the relation between automatic alcohol motivation and drinking behavior.

Research suggests that alcohol use is influenced by (a) the strength of automatic motivational responses to alcohol cues and (b) individual differences in self-control. The current study was designed to examine whether the self-control skill of inhibiting response to distracting stimuli would moderate the relation between automatic alcohol motivation and alcohol use. Eighty-seven hazardous drinkers completed baseline measures of automatic alcohol motivation and trait self-control and reported their drinking at a follow-up session 6 weeks later. Regression analyses demonstrated an interaction such that greater distractibility strengthens a positive relation between alcohol use and automatic alcohol motivation. These results contribute to a growing body of work indicating that self-control resources may help to inhibit the influence of automatic processes on alcohol behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Daily interpersonal experiences, context, and alcohol consumption: Crying in your beer and toasting good times.

The authors explored a multidimensional view of drinking, whereby social and solitary drinking represent distinct behaviors associated with positive and negative experiences, respectively. Using daily diary methodology and multilevel analytic strategy, the authors examined, over 30 days, the within-person association of negative and positive experiences and alcohol consumption in different contexts and focused on interpersonal experiences. On days with more negative interpersonal experiences, participants engaged in more solitary drinking (i.e., drinking at home and alone), whereas on days with more positive interpersonal experiences they drank more in social contexts. The authors also demonstrated that individuals high on neuroticism drank more in solitary contexts on days with more negative interpersonal experiences, relative to those with lower neuroticism. These findings lend support to models linking daily drinking motivation and context-dependent drinking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-awareness theory, family history of alcoholism, and adolescent alcohol involvement.

A recent psychological theory (Hull, 1981) suggests that alcohol use may be motivated by a desire to avoid painful states of self-awareness. Highly self-aware individuals who are receiving failure feedback are hypothesized to use alcohol to reduce their awareness of negative self-relevant information. However, data in support of this theory are derived largely from laboratory studies of adult populations. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the theory in predicting adolescent drinking behavior in the natural environment. The studies also examined the ability of the model to account for phenomena of clinical importance, namely, indicators of adolescent problem drinking and drinking among high-risk adolescents (offspring of problem drinkers). Results showed that adolescent drinking was predictable as a function of demographic variables, self-awareness, failure feedback, and a family history of alcohol abuse. However, the predictions of self-awareness theory were not supported. The results are interpreted with regard to describing boundary conditions within which self-awareness theory is useful in explaining alcohol consumption. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mood and alcohol consumption: An experience sampling test of the self-medication hypothesis.

In this investigation the authors applied the experience sampling method to prospectively test the self-medication hypothesis. In vivo reports gathered in the context of daily life demonstrated that nervousness was the only negative mood state to predict increases in alcohol consumption later in the course of the day. Further examination of this within-person relationship demonstrated that men were more likely to consume alcohol when nervous than were women, but this association was unrelated to family history of alcoholism, problem drinking patterns, or trait anxiety and depression. Consistent with the self-medication hypothesis, cross-sectional analyses also confirmed that alcohol consumption was generally associated with lower levels of nervousness; this effect varied by several demographic and clinical variables. These findings are discussed in terms of the diversity of reasons for alcohol consumption and their potential for explaining problem drinking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social influences in motivated drinking among college students.

This study tested whether drinking motives mediate the relation between personality and alcohol use and whether these predictors affected drinking in these individuals' friends. College students and their friends participated in the study as dyads (n=43 dyads, 86 participants). Each person completed surveys and a 28-day experience sampling protocol. Structural equation analyses found that (a) social motives mediated the relation between extraversion and alcohol outcomes, (b) coping motives mediated the relation between neuroticism and alcohol outcomes, and (c) enhancement motives mediated the relation between extraversion and alcohol outcomes. Moreover, young adults' alcohol use, but not their problem use, was influenced by their own drinking motives as well as the drinking motives of their best friends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive responses to televised beer advertisements associated with drinking and problems reported by 18 to 29-year-olds

AIMS: To examine the nature of the relationships between responses to alcohol advertisements and drinking behaviour and related problems. To examine the role of positive and negative beliefs about drinking as intervening variables. DESIGN: Survey utilizing a CATI (computer-assisted telephone interviewing) system, involving interviews with 1012 randomly selected respondents. SETTING: Respondents were randomly selected from throughout New Zealand. PARTICIPANTS: Eighteen to twenty-nine-year-old New Zealanders. MEASUREMENTS: Response to specific alcohol advertisements was measured by recalled exposure (how often they recalled having seen the advertisements) and liking (a measure of positive response). FINDINGS: An exploratory non-recursive structural equation model, based on 791 drinkers provided tentative support for the hypothesis that positive responses to televised beer advertisements (as measured by liking) contributed to the quantity of alcohol consumed on drinking occasions, which in turn contributed to the level of alcohol-related problems. The model, which provided a good fit to the data, was consistent with the hypothesis that liking of beer advertisements had both a direct influence on quantities of alcohol consumed and an indirect influence, via its influence on positive beliefs. These effects were present after controlling for reciprocal effects, none of which were significant. The data did not support the hypothesis that the quantities of alcohol consumed would influence the respondent's liking of beer advertisements. Recalled exposure was not a significant influence on the quantities consumed. CONCLUSIONS: The results are consistent with a number of theoretical perspectives and with a growing body of research that are suggestive of alcohol advertising having some influence on the consumption of younger people.     

Use of drinking protective behavioral strategies in association to sex-related alcohol negative consequences: The mediating role of alcohol consumption.

Alcohol use has been implicated as a risk factor for sexual negative consequences, such as unprotected sexual intercourse. The present research was conducted to examine the relationship between drinking protective behavioral strategies and consensual sex-related alcohol negative consequences, and whether this relationship varied by gender. Additionally, typical number of drinks during sexual behavior was evaluated as a potential mediator of this association. Heavy drinking, sexually active college students (N = 297, 50.2% women) completed self-report measures of drinking protective behavioral strategies, alcohol consumption, and sex-related alcohol negative consequences. Findings indicated that women who used drinking protective behavioral strategies more frequently were less likely to experience sex-related alcohol negative consequences whereas this relationship was not significant for men. For women, this relationship was mediated by the typical number of drinks consumed during sexual behavior. The current research demonstrates that use of drinking protective behavioral strategies is related to a reduction in women's sex-related risks when drinking. Findings are discussed in terms of alcohol myopia theory. Implications for interventions aimed to reduce higher risk sexual behavior among college students are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the associations among severity of injunctive drinking norms, alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related negative consequences: The moderating roles of alcohol consumption and identity.

This study examined a range of injunctive norms for alcohol use and related consequences from less severe behaviors (e.g., drinking with friends) to more severe behaviors (e.g., drinking enough alcohol to pass out), and their relationship with alcohol consumption and alcohol-related negative consequences among college students. In addition, this research aimed to determine whether these relationships between injunctive norms and consequences were moderated by alcohol consumption and level of identification with the typical same-gender college student. A random sample (N = 1,002) of undergraduates (56.9% women) completed a Web-based survey that was comprised of measures of drinking behavior, perceived approval of drinking behaviors that ranged in severity (i.e., injunctive norms), and level of identification with the typical same-gender college student. Results suggest that the association between negative consequences and injunctive drinking norms depend on one's own drinking behavior, identification with other students, and the severity of the alcohol use and related consequences for which injunctive norms are assessed. Findings are discussed in terms of false consensus and false uniqueness effects, and deviance regulation perspectives. Implications for preventive interventions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Extension of the simulated drinking game procedure to multiple drinking games.

The present study extended the Simulated Drinking Game Procedure (SDGP) to obtain information about different types of drinking games. Phase I participants (N = 545) completed online screening questionnaires assessing substance use and drinking game participation. Participants who met the selection criteria for Phase II (N = 92) participated in laboratory sessions that consisted of three different periods of drinking game play. Sixty-two percent (N = 57) of the sample was female. Data from these sessions was used to estimate the peak Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) a participant would achieve if they consumed alcohol while participating in the SDGP. Total consumption and estimated BAC varied as a function of game type. The total consumption and estimated BAC obtained while playing Beer Pong and Memory varied significantly as a function of group. Total ounces consumed while playing Three Man varied significantly as a function of group; however, the variation in estimated BAC obtained while playing Three Man was not significant. Results indicated that estimated BACs were higher for female participants across game type. Previous experience playing the three drinking games had no impact on total drink consumption or estimated BAC obtained while participating in the SDGP. The present study demonstrated that the SDGP can be used to generate estimates of how much alcohol is consumed and the associated obtained BAC during multiple types of drinking games. In order to fully examine whether previous experience factors in to overall alcohol consumption and BAC, future research should extend the SDGP to incorporate laboratory administration of alcohol during drinking game participation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)